The synthesis of substituted 3-(5-imidazo[2,1-b]thiazolylmethylene)-2-indolinones and analogues is reported. Their cytotoxic activity was evaluated according to protocols available at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, MD. The action of selected compounds was examined for potential inhibition of tubulin assembly in comparison with the potent colchicine site agent combretastatin A-4. The most potent compounds also strongly and selectively inhibited the phosphorylation of the oncoprotein kinase Akt in cancer cells. The effect of the most interesting compounds was examined on the growth of HT-29 colon cancer cells. These compounds caused the cells to arrest in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, as would be expected for inhibitors of tubulin assembly.

To develop estrogen receptor (ER) ligands having novel structures and activities, we have explored compounds in which the central hydrophobic core has a more three-dimensional topology than typically found in estrogen ligands and thus exploit the unfilled space in the ligand-binding pocket. Here, we build upon our previous investigations of 7-oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptene core ligands, by replacing the oxygen bridge with a sulfoxide. These new 7-thiabicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-ene-7-oxides were conveniently prepared by a Diels-Alder reaction of 3,4-diarylthiophenes with dienophiles in the presence of an oxidant and give cycloadducts with endo stereochemistry. Several new compounds demonstrated high binding affinities with excellent ERα selectivity, but unlike oxabicyclic compounds, which are transcriptional antagonists, most thiabicyclic compounds are potent, ERα-selective agonists. Modeling suggests that the gain in activity of the thiabicyclic compounds arises from their endo stereochemistry that stabilizes an active ER conformation. Further, the disposition of methyl substituents in the phenyl groups attached to the bicyclic core unit contribute to their binding affinity and subtype selectivity.

Aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3; type 5 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase) is overexpressed in castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and is implicated in the intratumoral biosynthesis of testosterone and 5α-dihydrotestosterone. Selective AKR1C3 inhibitors are required since compounds should not inhibit the highly related AKR1C1 and AKR1C2 isoforms which are involved in the inactivation of 5α-dihydrotestosterone. NSAIDs, N-phenylanthranilates in particular are potent but non-selective AKR1C3 inhibitors. Using flufenamic acid, 2-{[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]amino}benzoic acid as lead compound, five classes of structural analogs were synthesized and evaluated for AKR1C3 inhibitory potency and selectivity. Structure activity relationship (SAR) studies revealed that a meta-carboxylic acid group relative to the amine conferred pronounced AKR1C3 selectivity without loss of potency, while electron withdrawing groups on the phenylamino B-ring were optimal for AKR1C3 inhibition. Lead compounds did not inhibit COX-1 or COX-2 but blocked the AKR1C3 mediated production of testosterone in LNCaP-AKR1C3 cells. These compounds offer promising leads towards new therapeutics for CRPC.

The efficacy of anti-cancer drugs is often limited by their systemic toxicities and adverse side effects. We report that the EphA2 receptor is over-expressed preferentially in several human cancer cell lines compared to normal tissues and that an EphA2 targeting peptide (YSAYPDSVPMMS) can be effective in delivering anti-cancer agents to such tumors. Hence, we report on the synthesis and characterizations of a novel EphA2-targeting agent conjugated with the chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel. We found that the peptide-drug conjugate is dramatically more effective than paclitaxel alone at inhibiting tumor growth in a prostate cancer xenograft model, delivering significantly higher levels of drug to the tumor site. We believe these studies open the way to the development of a new class of therapeutic compounds that exploit the EphA2 receptor for drug delivery to cancer cells.

A known chemotype of H3 receptor ligand was explored for development of a radioligand for imaging brain histamine subtype 3 (H3) receptors in vivo with positron emission tomography (PET), namely non-imidazole 2-aminoethylbenzofurans, represented by the compound (R)-(2-(2-(2-methylpyrrolidin-1-yl)ethyl)benzofuran-5-yl)(4-fluorophenyl)methanone (9). Compound 9 was labeled with fluorine-18 (t1/2= 109.7 min) in high specific activity by treating the prepared nitro analog (12) with cyclotron-produced [18F]fluoride ion. [18F]9 was studied with PET in mouse and in monkey after intravenous injection. [18F]9 showed favorable properties as a candidate PET radioligand, including moderately high brain uptake with a high proportion of H3 receptor-specific signal in the absence of radiodefluorination. The nitro compound 12 was found to have even higher H3 receptor affinity, indicating the potential of this chemotype for the development of further promising PET radioligands.

Toxoplasmosis is a disease of prominent health concern that is caused by the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. Proliferation of T. gondii is dependent on its ability to invade host cells, which is mediated, in part, by calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (CDPK1). We have developed ATP competitive inhibitors of TgCDPK1 that block invasion of parasites into host cells, preventing their proliferation. The presence of a unique glycine gatekeeper residue in TgCDPK1 permits selective inhibition of the parasite enzyme over human kinases. These potent TgCDPK1 inhibitors do not inhibit the growth of human cell lines and represent promising candidates as toxoplasmosis therapeutics.

We previously identified a series of methylsulfonylnitrobenzoates (MSNB's) that block the interaction of the thyroid hormone receptor with its coactivators. MSNB's inhibits coactivator binding through irreversibly modifying cysteine 298 of thyroid hormone receptor (TR). Although MSNB's have better pharmacological features than our first generation inhibitors (β-aminoketones) they contain a potentially unstable ester linkage. Here we report the bioisosteric replacement of the ester linkage with a thiazole moiety, yielding sulfonylnitrophenylthiazoles (SNPT's). An array of SNPT's representing optimal side chains from the MSNB series was constructed using parallel chemistry and evaluated to test their antagonism of the TR-coactivator interaction. Selected active compounds were evaluated in secondary confirmatory assays including regulation of thyroid response element driven transcription in reporter constructs and native genes. In addition the selected SNPT's shown to be selective for TR relative to other nuclear hormone receptor (NR).

Since the emergence of drug-resistant mutants has limited the efficacy of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), it is essential to develop new antivirals with better drug-resistance and pharmacokinetic profiles. Here we designed and synthesized a series of 1-[(2-benzyloxyl/alkoxyl)methyl]-5-halo-6-aryluracils, the HEPT analogues, and evaluated their biological activity using Nevirapine and 18 (TNK-651) as reference compounds. Most of these compounds, especially 6b, 7b, 9b, 11b and 7c, exhibited highly potent anti-HIV-1 activity against both wild-type and NNRTI-resistant HIV-1 strains. The compound 7b, that had the highest selectivity index (SI = 38,215), is more potent than Nevirapine and 18. These results suggest that introduction of halogen at the C-5 position may contribute to the effectiveness of these compounds against RTI-resistant variants. In addition, m-substituents on the C-6 aromatic moiety could significantly enhance activity against NNRTI-resistant HIV-1 strains. These compounds can be further developed as next-generation NNRTIs with improved antiviral efficacy and drug-resistance profile.

Methuosis is a novel caspase-independent form of cell death in which massive accumulation of vacuoles derived from macropinosomes ultimately causes cells to detach from the substratum and rupture. We recently described a chalcone-like compound, 3-(2-methyl-1H indol-3-yl)-1-(4-pyridinyl)-2-propen-1-one (i.e. MIPP), which can induce methuosis in glioblastoma and other types of cancer cells. Herein we describe the synthesis and structure-activity relationships of a directed library of related compounds, providing insights into the contributions of the two aryl ring systems and highlighting a potent derivative, 3-(5-methoxy, 2-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-(4-pyridinyl)-2-propen-1-one (i.e. MOMIPP) that can induce methuosis at low μM concentrations. We have also generated biologically active azide derivatives that may be useful for future studies aimed at identifying the protein targets of MOMIPP by photoaffinity labeling techniques. The potential significance of these studies is underscored by the finding that MOMIPP effectively reduces the growth and viability of temozolomide-resistant glioblastoma and doxorubicin-resistant breast cancer cells. Thus, it may serve as a prototype for drugs that could be used to trigger death by methuosis in cancers that are resistant to conventional forms of cell death (e.g. apoptosis).

This report describes the design and application of several distinct gold-containing indoles as anti-cancer agents. When used individually, all gold-bearing compounds display cytostatic effects against leukemia and adherent cancer cell lines. However, two gold-bearing indoles show unique behavior by increasing the cytotoxic effects of clinically relevant levels of ionizing radiation. Quantifying the amount of DNA damage demonstrates that each gold-indole enhances apoptosis by inhibiting DNA repair. Both Au(I)-indoles were tested for inhibitory effects against various cellular targets including thioredoxin reductase, a known target of several gold compounds, and various ATP-dependent kinases. While neither compound significantly inhibits the activity of thioreoxin reductase, both showed inhibitory effects against several kinases associated with cancer initiation and progression. The inhibition of these kinases provides a possible mechanism for the ability of these Au(I)-indoles potentiate the cytotoxic effects of ionizing radiation. Clinical applications of combining Au(I)-indoles with ionizing radiation are discussed as a new strategy to achieve chemosensitization of cancer cells.

Screening efforts led to the identification of PI-8182 (1), an inhibitor of the chymotrypsin-like (CT-L) activity of the proteasome. Compound 1 contains a hydronaphthoquinone pharmacophore with a thioglycolic acid side chain at position 2 and thiophene sulfonamide at position 4. An efficient synthetic route to the hydronaphthoquinone sulfonamide scaffold was developed and compound 1 was synthesized in-house to confirm the structure and activity (IC50 = 3.0 ± 1.6 μM [n=25]). Novel hydronaphthoquinone derivatives of the hit 1 were designed, synthesized and evaluated as proteasome inhibitors. The structure activity relationship (SAR) guided synthesis of more than 170 derivatives revealed that the thioglycolic acid side chain is required and the carboxylic acid group of this side chain is critical to the CT-L inhibitory activity of compound 1. Furthermore, replacement of the carboxylic acid with carboxylic acid isosteres such as tetrazole or triazole greatly improves potency. Compounds with a thio-tetrazole or thio-triazole side chain in position 2, where the thiophene was replaced by hydrophobic aryl moieties were the most active compounds with up to 20-fold greater CT-L inhibitory than compound 1 (compounds 15e, 15f, 15h 15j, IC50 values around 200 nM and compound 29, IC50 = 150 nM). The synthetic iterations described here not only led to improving potency in vitro but also resulted in the identification of compounds that are more active such as 39 (IC50 = 0.44 to 1.01 μM) than 1 (IC50 = 3.54 to 7.22 μM) at inhibiting the proteasome CT-L activity in intact breast cancer cells. Treatment with 39 also resulted in the accumulation of ubiquitinated cellular proteins and inhibition of tumor cell proliferation of breast cancer cells. The hit 1 and its analog 39 inhibited proteasome CT-L activity irreversibly.

We reported the selective transport of classical 2-amino-4-oxo-6-substituted pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines with a thienoyl-for-benzoyl-substituted side chain and a 3- (3a) and 4-carbon (3b) bridge. Compound 3a was more potent than 3b against tumor cells; While 3b was completely selective for transport by folate receptors (FRs) and the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT) over reduced folate carrier (RFC), 3a was not. To determine if decreasing the distance between the bicyclic scaffold and L-glutamate in 3b would preserve transport selectivity and potency against human tumor cells, 3b regioisomers with [1,3] (7 and 8) and [1,2] (4, 5 and 6) substitutions on the thienoyl ring, and with acetylenic insertions in the 4-atom bridge, were synthesized and evaluated. Compounds 7 and 8 were potent nanomolar inhibitors of KB and IGROV1 human tumor cells with complete selectivity for FRα and PCFT over RFC.

A comprehensive study of a series of azaindenoisoquinoline topoisomerase I (Top1) inhibitors is reported. The synthetic pathways have been developed to prepare 7-, 8-, 9-, and 10-azaindenoisoquinolines. The present study shows that 7-azaindenoisoquinolines possess the greatest Top1 inhibitory activity and cytotoxicity. Additionally, the introduction of a methoxy group into the D-ring of 7-azaindenoisoquinolines improved their biological activities, leading to new lead molecules for further development. A series of QM calculations were performed on the model “sandwich” complexes of azaindenoisoquinolines with flanking DNA base pairs from the Drug–Top1–DNA ternary complex. The results of these calculations demonstrate how changes in two forces contributing to the π–π stacking, dispersion and charge-transfer interactions, affect the binding of the drug to the Top1–DNA cleavage complex and thus modulate the drug’s Top1 inhibitory activity.

Strategies to ameliorate the flaws of current chemotherapeutic agents, while maintaining potent anticancer activity, are of particular interest. Agents which can modulate multiple targets may have superior utility and fewer side effects than current single-target drugs. To explore the prospect in cancer therapy of a bivalent agent that combines two complimentary chemo-active groups within a single molecular architecture; we have synthesized dual-acting histone deacetylase and topoisomerase II inhibitors. These dual-acting agents are derived from suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) and anthracycline daunorubicin; prototypical histone deacetylase (HDAC) and topoisomerase II (Topo II) inhibitors respectively. We report herein that these agents present the signatures of inhibition of HDAC and Topo II in both cell-free and whole cell assays. Moreover, these agents potently inhibit the proliferation of representative cancer cell lines.

A series of dithiocarbamates was prepared by reaction of primary/secondary amines with carbon disulfide in the presence of bases. These compounds were tested for the inhibition of 4 human (h) isoforms of the zinc enzyme carbonic anhydrase, CA (EC 4.2.1.1), hCA I, II, IX and XII, involved in pathologies such as glaucoma (CA II and XII) or cancer (CA IX). Several low nanomolar inhibitors targeting these CAs were detected. X-ray crystal structure of hCA II adduct with morpholine dithiocarbamate evidenced the inhibition mechanism of these compounds, which coordinate to the metal ion through a sulfur atom from the dithiocarbamate zinc-binding function. Some dithiocarbamates showed effective intraocular pressure lowering activity in an animal model of glucoma.

Using a newly developed competitive binding assay dependent upon the reassembly of a split reporter protein, we have tested the promiscuity of a panel of reported kinase inhibitors against the AGC group. Many non-AGC targeted kinase inhibitors target multiple members of the AGC group. In general, structurally similar inhibitors consistently exhibited activity toward the same target as well as toward closely related kinases. The inhibition data was analyzed to test the predictive value of either using identity scores derived from residues within 6 Å of the active site or identity scores derived from the entire kinase domain. The results suggest that the active site identity in certain cases may be a stronger predictor of inhibitor promiscuity. The overall results provide general guidelines for establishing inhibitor selectivity, as well as for the future design of inhibitors that either target or avoid AGC kinases.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors that recognize specific molecular patterns present in molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens, but are structurally distinct from host molecules. The TLR7-agonistic imidazoquinolines are of interest as vaccine adjuvants given their ability to induce pronounced Th1-skewed humoral responses. Minor modifications on the imidazoquinoline scaffold result in TLR7-antagonistic compounds which may be of value in addressing innate immune activation-driven immune exhaustion observed in HIV. We describe the syntheses and evaluation of TLR7 and TLR8 modulatory activities of dimeric constructs of imidazoquinoline linked at the C2, C4, C8, and N1-aryl positions. Dimers linked at the C4, C8 and N1-aryl positions were agonistic at TLR7; only the N1-aryl dimer with a 12-carbon linker was dual TLR7/8 agonistic. Dimers linked at C2 position showed antagonistic activities at TLR7 and TLR8; the C2 dimer with a propylene spacer was maximally antagonistic at both TLR7 and TLR8.

The enantiomer pair androsterone and ent-androsterone are positive allosteric modulators of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. Each enantiomer was shown to bind at the same receptor site. Binding orientations of the enantiomers at this site were deduced using enantiomer pairs containing OBn substituents at either C-7 or C-11. 11β-OBn substituted steroids and 7α-OBn substituted ent-steroids potently displace [35S]TBPS, augment GABA currents and anesthetize tadpoles. In contrast, 7β-OBn substituted steroids and 11α-OBn substituted ent-steroids have diminished actions. The results suggest that the binding orientations of the active analogues are inverted relative to each other with the 7α and 11β substituents similarly located on the edges of the molecules not in contact with the receptor surface. Analogue potentiation of GABA current was abrogated by an α1 subunit Q241L mutation indicating that the active analogues act at the same sites in α1β2γ2L receptors previously associated with positive neurosteroid modulation.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel. The most common CF-causing mutation, ΔF508-CFTR, produces CFTR loss-of-function by impairing its cellular targeting to the plasma membrane and its chloride channel gating. We recently identified, cyanoquinolines with both corrector (“Co”; normalizing ΔF508-CFTR targeting) and potentiator (“Po”; normalizing ΔF508-CFTR channel gating) activities. Here, we synthesized and characterized twenty-four targeted cyanoquinoline analogues to elucidate the conformational requirements for corrector and potentiator activities. Compounds with potentiator-only, corrector-only and dual potentiator-corrector activities were found. Molecular modeling studies (conformational search ⇒ force-field lowest energy assessment ⇒ geometry optimization] suggest that (1) a flexible tether and (2) a relatively short bridge between the cyanoquinoline and aryl amide moieties are important cyanoquinoline-based CoPo features. Further, these CoPo’s should adopt two distinct π-stacking conformations to elicit corrector and potentiator activities.

The interaction between β-catenin and B-cell CLL/lymphoma 9 (BCL9), critical for the transcriptional activity of β-catenin, is mediated by a helical segment from BCL9 and a large binding groove in β-catenin. Design of potent, metabolically stable BCL9 peptides represents an attractive approach to inhibit the activity of β-catenin. In this study, we report the use of the Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction to generate triazole-stapled BCL9 α-helical peptides. The high efficiency and mild conditions of this “click” reaction combined with the ease of synthesis of the necessary unnatural amino acids allows for facile synthesis of triazole-stapled peptides. We have performed extensive optimization of this approach and identified the optimal combinations of azido and alkynyl linkers necessary for stapling BCL9 helices. The unsymmetrical nature of the triazole staple also allowed the synthesis of double-stapled BCL9 peptides, which show a marked increase in helical character and an improvement in binding affinity and metabolic stability relative to wild-type and linear BCL9 peptides. This study lays the foundation for further optimization of these triazole-stapled BCL9 peptides as potent, metabolically stable and cell-permeable inhibitors to target the β-catenin and BCL9 interaction.

The discovery, structure elucidation and solid phase synthesis of namalide, a marine natural product, are described. Namalide is a cyclic tetrapeptide; its macrocycle is formed by only three amino acids, with an exocyclic ureido phenylalanine moiety at its C-terminus. The absolute configuration of namalide was established and analogs generated through Fmoc-based solid phase peptide synthesis. We found that only natural namalide and not its analogs containing l-Lys or l-allo-Ile inhibited carboxypeptidase A at submicromolar concentrations. In parallel, an Inverse Virtual Screening approach aimed at identifying protein targets of namalide selected carboxypeptidase A as the third highest scoring hit. Namalide represents a new anabaenopeptin-type scaffold, and its protease inhibitory activity demonstrates that the 13-membered macrolactam can exhibit similar activity as the more common hexapeptides.

There is considerable evidence to support the hypothesis that the blockade of nAChR is responsible for the antidepressant action of nicotinic ligands. The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) antagonist, mecamylamine, has been shown to be an effective add-on in patients that do not respond to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. This suggests that nAChR ligands may address an unmet clinical need by providing relief from depressive symptoms in refractory patients. In this study, a new series of nAChR ligands based on an isoxazole-ether scaffold have been designed and synthesized for binding and functional assays. Preliminary structure-activity relationship (SAR) efforts identified a lead compound 43, which possesses potent antidepressant-like activity (1 mg/kg, IP; 5 mg/kg, PO) in the classical mouse forced swim test. Early stage absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADME-Tox) studies also suggested favorable drug-like properties, and broad screening towards other common neurotransmitter receptors indicated that compound 43 is highly selective for nAChRs over the other 45 neurotransmitter receptors and transporters tested.