Background

It is not known if the genes involved with endurance performance during young adulthood are also involved with changes in performance. We examined the associations of gene variants with symptom-limited exercise test duration at baseline and decrease in duration over 20 years.

Methods and Results

3,783 (1,835 Blacks 1,948 Whites) and 2,335 (1,035 Blacks 1,300 Whites) participants from CARDIA were included in the baseline and 20 year models, respectively. 217 SNPs in Blacks and 171 SNPs in Whites from 17 genes were genotyped. In Blacks, five SNPs in the ATP1A2, HIF1A, NOS3, and PPARGC1A loci tended to be associated (p<0.05) with baseline duration in a multivariate regression model. Blacks (n=99) with at least four of the most-favorable genotypes at these loci had approximately two minutes longer baseline duration than those with only two such genotypes (P<0.0001). In Whites, the HIF1A rs1957757 and PPARGC1A rs3774909 markers tended to be associated with baseline duration, but the association of a multimarker construct of the most-favorable genotypes at both SNPs with baseline duration was not statistically significant. In Whites, four SNPs in the AGT, AMPD1, ANG, and PPARGC1A loci tended to be associated with decrease in exercise duration over 20 years, and those (n=40) with all four favorable genotypes had 0.8 min less decline in duration compared to those with none or one (n=232) (P<0.0001).

Conclusion

In multimarker constructs, alleles at genes related to skeletal muscle Na+/K+ transport, hypoxia, and mitochondrial metabolism are associated with symptom-limited exercise test duration over time in adults.

Background

To examine the benefits of physical activity (PA) on diseases with a long developmental period, it is important to determine reliability of long-term PA recall.

Methods

We investigated 15-year reproducibility of PA recall. Participants were 3605 White and African-American adults in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study, aged 33–45 at the time of recall assessment. Categorical questions assessed PA before and during high school (HS) and overall PA level at Baseline, with the same timeframes recalled 15 years later. Moderate- and vigorous-intensity scores were calculated from reported months of participation in specific activities.

Results

HS PA recall had higher reproducibility than overall PA recall (weighted kappa = 0.43 vs. 0.21). Correlations between 15-year recall and Baseline reports of PA were r = 0.29 for moderate-intensity scores, and r = 0.50 for vigorous-intensity. Recall of vigorous activities had higher reproducibility than moderate-intensity activities. Regardless of number of months originally reported for specific activities, most participants recalled either no activity or activity during all 12 months.

Conclusion

PA recall from the distant past is moderately reproducible, but poor at the individual level, among young and middle aged adults.

Lung function studies in middle-aged subjects predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. We studied if greater loss of forced vital capacity (FVC) early in life predicted incident hypertension (HTN). The sample was 3205 black and white men and women in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study examined between 1985-86 (CARDIA year 0, ages 18-30 years) and 2005-06 and who were not hypertensive by year 10. FVC was assessed at years 0, 2, 5, 10, and 20. Proportional hazard ratios (HR) and linear regression models predicted incident HTN at years 15 or 20 (n=508) from the change in FVC (FVC at year 10 – peak FVC, where peak FVC was estimated as the maximum across years 0, 2, 5 and 10). Covariates included demographics, center, systolic blood pressure, FVC max, smoking, physical activity, asthma and BMI. Unadjusted cumulative incident HTN was 25% in the lowest FVC loss quartile (Q1, median loss=370ml) compared to 12% cumulative incident HTN in those who achieved peak FVC at year 10 (Q4). Minimally adjusted HR for Q1 vs. Q4 was 2.21 (95% CI: 1.73-2.83) and this association remained significant in the fully adjusted model (1.37, 95% CI: 1.05-1.80). Decline in FVC from average age at peak (29.4 years) to 35 years old predicted incident hypertension between average ages 35 and 45. The findings may represent a common pathway that may link low normal FVC to cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality.

Background

The association of subclinical vascular disease and early declines in kidney function has not been well studied.

Study Design

Prospective cohort study

Setting & Participants

MESA participants with eGFR ≥60 ml/min/1.73m2 with follow-up of 5 years

Predictors

Pulse pressure (pulse pressure), small and large arterial elasticity (SAE, LAE), and flow mediated dilation.

Outcomes

kidney function decline

Measurements

SAE and LAE were measured by pulse contour analysis of the radial artery. Kidney function was measured by serum creatinine- and cystatin C-based eGFR.

Results

Among 4,853 adults, higher pulse pressure and lower SAE and LAE had independent and linear associations with faster rates of kidney function decline. Compared to persons with pulse pressure 40–50mmHg, eGFRSCysC decline was 0.29 (p=0.006), 0.56 (p<0.001), and 0.91 (p<0.001) ml/min/1.73m2/year faster among persons with pulse pressure 50–60, 60–70, and >70mmHg, respectively. Compared to the highest quartile of SAE (most elastic), eGFRSCysC decline was 0.26 (p=0.009), 0.35 (p=0.001), and 0.70 (p<0.001) ml/min/1.73m2/year faster for the second, third and fourth quartiles respectively. For LAE, compared to the highest quartile, eGFRSCysC decline was 0.28 (p=0.004), 0.58 (p<0.001), and 0.83 (p<0.001) ml/min/1.73m2/year faster for each decreasing quartile of LAE. Findings were similar with creatinine-based eGFR. In contrast, among 2,997 adults with flow-mediated dilation and kidney function measures, flow-mediated dilation was not significantly associated with kidney function decline. For every 1-SD greater flow-mediated dilation, eGFRSCysC and eGFRSCr changed by 0.05 ml/min/1.73m2/year (p=0.3) and 0.06 ml/min/1.73m2/year (p=0.04), respectively.

Limitations

We had no direct measure of GFR, in common with nearly all large population based studies.

Conclusions

Higher pulse pressure and lower arterial elasticity, but not flow-mediated dilation, were linearly and independently associated with faster kidney function decline among persons with eGFR ≥60 ml/min/1.73m2. Future studies investigate whether treatments to lower stiffness of large and small arteries may slow the rate of kidney function loss.

Smoking causes endothelial dysfunction and systemic microvascular disease with resultant end-organ damage in the kidneys, eyes and heart. Little is known about microvascular changes in smoking-related lung disease. We tested if microvascular changes in the retina, kidneys and heart were associated with obstructive spirometry and low lung density on computed tomography. The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis recruited participants age 45–84 years without clinical cardiovascular disease. Measures of microvascular function included retinal arteriolar and venular caliber, urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and, in a subset, myocardial blood flow on magnetic resonance imaging. Spirometry was measured following ATS/ERS guidelines. Low attenuation areas (LAA) were measured on lung fields of cardiac computed tomograms. Regression models adjusted for pulmonary and cardiac risk factors, medications and body size. Among 3,397 participants, retinal venular caliber was inversely associated with forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) (P<0.001) and FEV1/forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio (P = 0.04). Albumin-to-creatinine ratio was inversely associated with FEV1 (P = 0.002) but not FEV1/FVC. Myocardial blood flow (n = 126) was associated with lower FEV1 (P = 0.02), lower FEV1/FVC (P = 0.001) and greater percentage LAA (P = 0.04). Associations were of greater magnitude among smokers. Low lung function was associated with microvascular changes in the retina, kidneys and heart, and low lung density was associated with impaired myocardial microvascular perfusion. These cross-sectional results suggest that microvascular damage with end-organ dysfunction in all circulations may pertain to the lung, that lung dysfunction may contribute to systemic microvascular disease, or that there may be a shared predisposition.

The psychometric properties of instruments used to measure self-reported experiences of discrimination in epidemiologic studies are rarely assessed, especially regarding construct validity. The authors used 2000–2001 data from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study to examine differential item functioning (DIF) in 2 versions of the Experiences of Discrimination (EOD) Index, an index measuring self-reported experiences of racial/ethnic and gender discrimination. DIF may confound interpretation of subgroup differences. Large DIF was observed for 2 of 7 racial/ethnic discrimination items: White participants reported more racial/ethnic discrimination for the “at school” item, and black participants reported more racial/ethnic discrimination for the “getting housing” item. The large DIF by race/ethnicity in the index for racial/ethnic discrimination probably reflects item impact and is the result of valid group differences between blacks and whites regarding their respective experiences of discrimination. The authors also observed large DIF by race/ethnicity for 3 of 7 gender discrimination items. This is more likely to have been due to item bias. Users of the EOD Index must consider the advantages and disadvantages of DIF adjustment (omitting items, constructing separate measures, and retaining items). The EOD Index has substantial usefulness as an instrument that can assess self-reported experiences of discrimination.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether 10-year change in occupational mobility is related to carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) 5 years later.

METHODS

Data were obtained from 2350 participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Occupational standing was measured at the Year 5 and 15 CARDIA follow-up exams when participants were 30.2+3.6 and 40.2+3.6 years of age, respectively. IMT (common (CCA), internal (ICA), and bulb) was measured at Year 20. Occupational mobility was defined as the change in occupational standing between Years 5 and 15 using two semi-continuous variables. Analyses controlled for demographics, CARDIA center, employment status, parents’ medical history, own medical history, Year 5 Framingham risk score, physiological risk factors and health behaviors averaged across the follow-up, and sonography reader.

RESULTS

Occupational mobility was unrelated to IMT save for an unexpected association of downward mobility with less CCA-IMT (β= −.04, p=.04). However, associations differed depending on initial standing (Year 5) and sex. For those with lower initial standings upward mobility was associated with less CCA-IMT (β= −.07, p=.003) and downward mobility with greater CCA-IMT and bulb-ICA-IMT (β= .14, p=.01 and β= .14, p=.03, respectively); for those with higher standings, upward mobility was associated with greater CCA-IMT (β= .15, p=.008) but downward mobility was unrelated to either IMT measure (ps>.20). Sex-specific analyses revealed associations of upward mobility with less CCA-IMT and bulb-ICA-IMT among men only (ps<.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Occupational mobility may have implications for future cardiovascular health. Effects may differ depending on initial occupational standing and sex.

Background

African-Americans have a disproportionate burden of hypertension compared to Caucasians, while data on Hispanics is less well-defined. Mechanisms underlying these differences are unclear, but could be due in part to ancestral background and vascular function.

Methods and Results

660 African-Americans and 635 Hispanics from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) with complete data on genetic ancestry, pulse pressure (PP), and large and small arterial elasticity (LAE, SAE) were studied. LAE and SAE were obtained using the HDI PulseWave CR-2000 Research CardioVascular Profiling Instrument. Among African-Americans higher European ancestry was marginally associated with higher LAE (p=0.05) and lower PP (p=0.05) among African-Americans; results for LAE were attenuated after adjustment for potential mediators (p=0.30). Ancestry was not associated with SAE in African-Americans. Among Hispanics, higher Native American ancestry was associated with higher SAE (p=0.0006); higher African ancestry was marginally associated with lower SAE (p=0.07). Ancestry was not significantly associated with LAE or PP in Hispanics.

Conclusions

Among African-Americans, higher European ancestry may be associated with less large artery damage as measured by LAE and PP, although these associations warrant further study. Among Hispanics, ancestry is strongly associated with SAE. Future studies should consider information on genetic ancestry when studying hypertension burden in race/ethnic minorities, particularly among Hispanics.

Background. Changes in retinal microvascular caliber, which occur prior to onset of retinopathy, may indicate presence of kidney damage.

Methods. This study examined the association between retinal arteriolar [central retinal artery equivalent (CRAE)] and venular caliber [central retinal venule equivalent (CRVE)] and presence of albuminuria (micro- or macroalbuminuria) among participants of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), a cohort of adults aged 45–84 years without baseline clinical cardiovascular disease. During the second MESA exam, digital fundus photography was completed in 5897 participants who provided spot urine specimens. Albuminuria was defined by spot urine albumin/creatinine ratios ≥30 mg/g. Multivariable adjusted odds of albuminuria by quintiles of CRAE and CRVE were determined using logistic regression. Analyses were repeated after stratifying by presence of type 2 diabetes.

Results. Albuminuria was noted in 11.5% (n = 675) and included 584 subjects with microalbuminuria and 91 with macroalbuminuria. A significant U-shaped pattern was seen with higher prevalence of albuminuria across quintile extremes in CRAE (15.7, 8.8 and 10.6% in CRAE Quintiles 1, 3 and 5, respectively; P <0.0001). After adjustment for covariates, both narrower CRAE [odds ratios (OR) 1.55; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.17–2.04, Quintile 1 versus 3) and wider CRAE (OR 1.44; 95% CI 1.07–1.93, Quintile 5 versus 3) were significantly associated with albuminuria. Associations appeared substantially stronger in adults with than without type 2 diabetes but the interaction term for diabetes and CRAE on presence of albuminuria did not meet statistical significance (P = 0.3). No association was noted between CRVE quintiles and albuminuria.

Conclusions. Albuminuria is associated with narrower and wider arteriolar caliber. Future studies should determine whether variation in arteriolar caliber predicts incident albuminuria and whether associations are mediated by hypertension and diabetes. Such information could further clarify early microvascular processes in the pathogenesis of kidney disease.

Purpose

Population rates of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) are changing. Consistent case definitions to evaluate these trends and make comparisons are essential. The World Health Organization (WHO) AMI diagnostic algorithm and clinical judgments were the standards for classification. However, in recent years, five new algorithms, to include diagnostic advances, are advocated by professional organizations. This study compares AMI rates derived from six algorithms and the impact of troponins on those rates.

Methods

The authors utilize the population-based Minnesota Heart Survey hospital data in 1995 and 2001 to compare six published diagnostic algorithms and the impact of troponins.

Results

In 1995 differences in AMI rates between algorithms ranged from 281/100,000 to 440/100,000 for men and 98/100,000 to 139/100,000 for women. The use of troponin, a more sensitive biomarker, adds to the differences by increasing eligible cases. Using 2001 data in patients where creatine kinase and troponin were simultaneously measured, a 64% and 95% increase in AMI rates among men and women, respectively, was observed.

Conclusions

Accurate and consistent AMI definitions are crucial for clinical trials, epidemiology and public health research. Demonstrated here is the sensitivity of AMI rates to changing case definitions and the biomarker troponin.

Functional biomarkers like large artery elasticity (LAE) and small artery elasticity (SAE) may predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) events beyond blood pressure. The authors examined the prognostic value of LAE and SAE for clinical CVD events among 6,235 Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis participants who were initially aged 45–84 years and without symptomatic CVD. LAE and SAE were derived from diastolic pulse contour analysis. During a median 5.8 years of follow-up between 2000 and 2008, 454 adjudicated CVD events occurred, including 256 cases of coronary heart disease (CHD), 93 strokes, and 126 heart failures (multiple diagnoses were possible). After adjustment for age, race/ethnicity, sex, clinic, height, heart rate, body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, use of antihypertensive and cholesterol-lowering medications, smoking, total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, diabetes, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, the hazard ratio for any CVD per standard-deviation increase in SAE was 0.71 (95% confidence interval: 0.61, 0.83; P < 0.0001). The lowest (stiffest) SAE quartile had a hazard ratio of 2.28 (95% confidence interval: 1.55, 3.36) versus the highest (most elastic) quartile. The net reclassification index, conditional on base risk, was 0.11. SAE was significantly associated with future CHD, stroke, and heart failure. After adjustment, LAE was not significantly related to CVD. In asymptomatic participants free of overt CVD, lower SAE added prognostic information for CVD, CHD, stroke, and heart failure events.

Objectives

Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCω3PUFAs), selenium (Se) and mercury (Hg) are three important components in fish. The cardioprotective effect of LCω3PUFA intake has been recognized; however, the hypothesis that this benefit may be greatest with high Se and low Hg levels has not been investigated.

Design

A cohort of 4,508 American adults aged 18–30, without hypertension at baseline in 1985, were enrolled. Six follow-ups were conducted at exams in 1987, 1990, 1992, 1995, 2000 and 2005. Diet was assessed by a validated interviewer-administered quantitative food frequency questionnaire at exams in 1985, 1992 and 2005. Incident hypertension was defined as first occurrence at any follow-up examination of systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg, or taking anti-hypertensive medication. Toenail clippings were collected in 1987, and Se and Hg levels were quantified by instrumental neutron-activation analysis.

Result

Participants in the highest LCω3PUFAintake quartile had a significantly lower incidence of hypertension (Hazard Ratio: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.53–0.79; Ptrend<0.01) compared to those in the lowest quartile after adjustment for potential confounders. Docosahexaenoic acid showed a greater inverse association than eicosapentaenoic acid. The inverse association of LCω3PUFA intake with hypertension appeared more pronounced at higher Se and lower Hg levels, although interaction tests were statistically non-significant.

Conclusions

Out findings indicated that LCω3PUFA intake was inversely associated with incidence of hypertension. The prior hypothesis that the potential anti-hypertensive effect of LCω3PUFA intake varies depending on joint levels of Se and Hg received modest support, and cannot be ruled out.

OBJECTIVE

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), lipophilic chemicals that accumulate mainly in adipose tissue, have recently been linked to type 2 diabetes. However, evidence from prospective studies is sparse. This study was performed to evaluate prospective associations of type 2 diabetes with selected POPs among the elderly.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Nineteen POPs (14 polychlorinated biphenyl [PCB] congeners, 3 organochlorine pesticides, 1 brominated diphenyl ether, and 1 dioxin) were measured in plasma collected at baseline in 725 participants, aged 70 years, of the Prospective Investigation of the Vasculature in Uppsala Seniors (PIVUS).

RESULTS

After adjusting for known type 2 diabetes risk factors, including obesity, odds ratios (ORs) (95% CIs) for type 2 diabetes at age 75 years (n = 36) according to the quintiles of a summary measure of concentrations of PCBs (vs. the lowest quintile) were 4.5, 5.1, 8.8 (1.8–42.7), and 7.5 (1.4–38.8) (Ptrend <0.01). Among organochlorine pesticides, adjusted ORs across concentrations of trans-nonachlor showed that Ptrend = 0.03. Adjusted ORs (95% CIs) across quintiles of the sum of three organochlorine pesticides were 1.1, 1.6, 1.5, and 3.4 (1.0–11.7) (Ptrend = 0.03). Neither brominated diphenyl ether 47 nor dioxin was significantly associated with incident diabetes. The sum of PCBs improved reclassification significantly when added to traditional risk factors for diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the small number of incident cases, this study found that environmental exposure to some POPs substantially increased risk of future type 2 diabetes in an elderly population.

Aims

Infection may be a rheumatoid arthritis (RA) risk factor. We examined whether signs of periodontal infection were associated with RA development in NHANES I & NHEFS.

Materials and Methods

In 1971–1974, 9,702 men and women aged 25–74 were enrolled and surveyed longitudinally (1982,1986,1987,1992). Periodontal infection was defined by baseline tooth loss or clinical evidence of periodontal disease. Baseline(n=138) and incident(n=433) RA cases were defined via self-report physician diagnosis, joint pain/swelling, ICD-9 codes (714.0–714.9), death certificates, and/or RA hospitalization.

Results

Adjusted odds ratios (ORs)[95%CI] for prevalent RA in gingivitis and periodontitis (vs. healthy) were 1.09[0.57,2.10] and 1.85[0.95,3.63]; incident RA ORs were 1.32[0.85,2.06] and 1.00[0.68,1.48]. The ORs for prevalent RA among participants missing 5–8, 9–14, 15–31 or 32 teeth (vs. 0–4 teeth) were 1.74[1.03,2.95], 1.82[0.81,4.10], 1.45[0.62,3.41] and 1.30[0.48,3.53]; ORs for incident RA were 1.12[0.77,1.64], 1.67[1.12,2.48], 1.40[0.85,2.33] and 1.22[0.75,2.00]. Dose-responsiveness was enhanced among never-smokers. The rate of death or loss-to-follow-up after 1982 was 2–4 fold higher among participants with periodontitis or missing ≥9 teeth (vs. healthy participants).

Conclusions

Although participants with periodontal disease or≥5 missing teeth experienced higher odds of prevalent/incident RA, most ORs were nonstatistically significant and lacked dose-responsiveness. Differential RA ascertainment bias complicated the interpretation of these data.

Objective

Chronic infections, including periodontal infections, may predispose to cardiovascular disease. We investigated the relationship between periodontal microbiota and hypertension. Methods and Results: 653 dentate men and women with no history of stroke or myocardial infarction were enrolled in INVEST. We collected 4533 subgingival plaque samples (average of 7 samples/subject). These were quantitatively assessed for 11 periodontal bacteria using DNA-DNA checkerboard hybridization. Cardiovascular risk factor measurements were obtained. Blood pressure and hypertension (systolic blood pressure≥140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure≥90 mmHg or taking antihypertensive medication, or self-reported history) were each regressed on the level of bacteria: (1) considered causative of periodontal disease (etiologic bacterial burden); (2) associated with periodontal disease (putative bacterial burden); (3) associated with periodontal health (health associated bacterial burden). All analyses were adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, gender, education, body mass index, smoking, diabetes, LDL and HDL cholesterol. Etiologic bacterial burden was positively associated with both blood pressure and prevalent hypertension. Comparing the highest vs. lowest tertiles of etiologic bacterial burden, SBP was 9 mmHg higher, DBP was 5 mmHg higher (p for linear trend <0.001 in each case), and the odds ratio for prevalent hypertension was 3.05 (95%CI:1.60,5.82) after multivariable adjustment.

Conclusions

Our data provide evidence of a direct relationship between the levels of subgingival periodontal bacteria and both systolic and diastolic blood pressure as well as hypertension prevalence.

Objective

Polymorphisms within the ICAM1 structural gene have been shown to influence circulating levels of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule -1 (sICAM-1) but their relation to atherosclerosis has not been clearly established. We sought to determine whether ICAM1 SNPs are associated with circulating sICAM-1 concentration, coronary artery calcium (CAC), and common and internal carotid intima medial thickness (IMT).

Methods and Results

3,550 black and white Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study subjects who participated in the year 15 and/or 20 examinations and were part of the Young Adult Longitudinal Study of Antioxidants (YALTA) ancillary study were included in this analysis. In whites, rs5498 was significantly associated with sICAM-1 (p < 0.001) and each G-allele of rs5498 was associated with 5% higher sICAM-1 concentration. In blacks, each C-allele of rs5490 was associated with 6 % higher sICAM-1 level; this SNP was in strong linkage disequilibrium with rs5491, a functional variant. Subclinical measurements of atherosclerosis in either year 15 or year 20 were not significantly related to ICAM1 SNPs.

Conclusions

In CARDIA, ICAM1 DNA segment variants were associated with sICAM-1 protein level including the novel finding that levels differ by the functional variant rs5491. However, ICAM1 SNPs were not strongly related to either IMT or CAC. Our findings in CARDIA suggest that ICAM1 variants are not major early contributors to subclinical atherosclerosis.

Objective

To assess whether markers of acculturation (birthplace, number of U.S. generations) and socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with carotid artery plaque, internal carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), and albuminuria, in four racial/ethnic groups.

Methods

Using Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis data (n = 6,716; age: 45-84) and race-specific binomial regression models, we computed prevalence ratios, adjusted for demographics and traditional cardiovascular risk factors.

Results

The adjusted U.S. to foreign-born prevalence ratio (99% CI) for carotid plaque was 1.20 (0.97, 1.39) in Whites, 1.91 (0.94, 2.94) in Chinese, 1.62 (1.28, 2.06) in Blacks, and 1.23 (1.15, 1.31) in Hispanics. Greater carotid plaque prevalence was also found among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics with more generations of US residence (p<0.001). Lower educational attainment and/or income were associated with greater carotid plaque prevalence in Whites and Blacks. Similar associations were observed with IMT. There was also some evidence of an inverse association between albuminuria and SES, in Whites and Hispanics.

Conclusions

Greater U.S. acculturation and lower SES were associated with a higher prevalence of carotid plaque and IMT, while little association was found with albuminuria.

Change and fluctuation in body mass index (BMI; weight (kg)/height (m)2) may be associated differently with coronary artery calcification (CAC) than with carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT). The authors analyzed data on 2,243 participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study, initially aged 18–30 years, who were examined every 2–5 years over a 20-year period (1985–2006). BMI at year 0 was associated positively and linearly with CAC at year 20; however, the association of BMI with year 20 CAC became progressively U-shaped in subsequent examinations (years 10, 15, and 20). To understand the deepening U shape, the authors modeled year 20 BMI and its history using 3 indices: year 0 BMI, linear slope of BMI during 20 years, and BMI fluctuation during 20 years. In models including these 3 terms, year 0 BMI was associated positively with CAC, as was BMI fluctuation. However, adjusted odds ratios across quintiles of BMI slope (vs. the lowest quintile) were 0.7, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.4 (Ptrend < 0.01), suggesting higher risk of CAC with weight loss, plateauing after moderate weight gain. In contrast, IMT was associated positively with BMI at all examinations and with 20-year BMI slope and was unassociated with BMI fluctuation. Surprisingly, CAC risk was higher with BMI loss and lower with BMI gain, whereas associations with IMT were as expected.

Background

The growing burden and morbidity of chronic kidney disease (CKD) warrant effective strategies for identifying those at increased risk. We examined the association of cystatin C and albuminuria with development of CKD stage 3.

Study Design

Prospective observational study.

Setting and Participants

5,422 participants from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) ≥ 60 ml/min/1.73m2.

Predictor

Participants were categorized into four mutually exclusive groups: presence or absence of microalbuminuria (albumin-creatinine ratio >17 and > 25 µg/mg in men and women, respectively) in those with or without cystatin C ≥ 1.0 mg/L.

Outcomes and Measurements

Incident CKD stage 3 was defined as eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2 at the 3rd or 4th visit and an annual decline of > 1 ml/min/1.73 m2. Poisson regression was used to evaluate incident rate ratios in unadjusted and adjusted analyses that include baseline eGFR.

Results

Mean age was 61 years, 49% were men, 38% white, 11% had diabetes, 13.7% had cystatin C ≥ 1mg/L, 8.4% had microalbuminuria, and 2.7 % had cystatin C ≥ 1 mg/L with microalbuminuria. 554 (10%) participants developed CKD stage 3 over a median follow-up of 4.7 years and the adjusted incidence rate ratios (95% CI) were 1.57 (1.19–2.07), 1.37 (1.13–1.66), and 2.12 (1.61–2.80) in those with microalbuminuria, cystatin C ≥ 1 mg/L, and both, respectively, compared to those with neither.

Limitations

Relatively short follow up and absence of measured GFR.

Conclusions

Cystatin C and microalbuminuria are independent risk factors for incident CKD stage 3 and could be useful as screening tools to identify those at increased risk.

Objective

To investigate longitudinal associations between community-level gasoline price and physical activity (PA).

Method

In the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study, 5,115 black and white participants aged 18–30 at baseline 1985–86 were recruited from four U.S. cities (Birmingham, Chicago, Minneapolis and Oakland) and followed over time. We used data from 3 follow-up exams: 1992–93, 1995–96, and 2000–01, when the participants were located across 48 states. From questionnaire data, a total PA score was summarized in exercise units (EU) based on intensity and frequency of 13 PA categories. Using Geographic Information Systems, participants’ residential locations were linked to county-level inflation-adjusted gasoline price data collected by the Council for Community & Economic Research. We used a random-effect longitudinal regression model to examine associations between time-varying gasoline price and time-varying PA, controlling for age, race, gender, baseline study center, and time-varying education, marital status, household income, county cost of living, county bus fare, census block-group poverty, and urbanicity.

Results

Holding all control variables constant, a 25-cent increase in inflation-adjusted gasoline price was significantly associated with an increase of 9.9 EU in total PA (95%CI: 0.8–19.1).

Conclusion

Rising prices of gasoline may be associated with an unintended increase in leisure PA.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prospective association between accordance with the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) and subsequent diabetes incidence and changes in cardiometabolic risk factors.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The sample consisted of 4,381 black and white young adults examined repeatedly from 1985 to 2005. We used the 2005 Diet Quality Index (DQI) to rate participants’ diets based on meeting key dietary recommendations conveyed by the 2005 DGA.

RESULTS

Overall, we found no association between DQI score and diabetes risk using Cox models adjusted for potential confounders. Higher DQI scores were associated with favorable changes in HDL cholesterol and blood pressure overall (P for trend <0.05), but with increased insulin resistance among blacks (P for trend <0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the need for evaluation of the DGA’s effectiveness, particularly among ethnic minority populations. Clinicians should be aware that following the DGA might not lower diabetes risk.

Whole cereal grain foods are high in phytate, a calcium chelator, and could increase risk of hip fracture. We investigated baseline whole grain intake and incident hip fracture. We followed 29,192 women who, at baseline in 1986 were aged 55–69 y, free of diabetes, reported plausible energy intake of 600–5000 kcal/d, and reported no fracture since age 35 y. Hip fracture (n=746) was self-reported in 5 questionnaires through 2004. Of 1451 hip fractures identified passively by Medicare linkage through Dec 31, 2004 (Medicare hip fracture), 507 had also been self-reported. Whole grain intake was inversely related to Medicare hip fracture (ptrend=0.02), but was unrelated to self-reported hip fracture (ptrend=0.27). The hazard ratio in highest to lowest quintile of whole grain intake for incident Medicare only hip fracture (n=944) was 0.68 (95% confidence interval 0.56, 0.84) after adjustment for age, energy intake, education, body mass index, waist to hip ratio, farm residence, physical activity, estrogen use, smoking, alcohol use, history of cancer and other dietary variables. Medicare only cases may have failed to self-report due to severe illness; hazard ratio for total mortality after hip fracture was 2.92 (2.37,3.59) for Medicare only cases vs Medicare-confirmed self-reported cases. In conclusion, in this cohort, an inverse association of whole grain intake with hip fracture was explained by ascertainment bias. Whole grain intake may increase ability to respond to a questionnaire and self-report hip fracture and could reflect less undocumented frailty.

Background. The NCEP metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a combination of dichotomized interrelated risk factors from predominantly Caucasian populations. We propose a continuous MetS score based on principal component analysis (PCA) of the same risk factors in a multiethnic cohort and compare prediction of incident CVD events with NCEP MetS definition. Additionally, we replicated these analyses in the Health, Aging, and Body composition (Health ABC) study cohort. Methods and Results. We performed PCA of the MetS elements (waist circumference, HDL, TG, fasting blood glucose, SBP, and DBP) in 2610 Caucasian Americans, 801 Chinese Americans, 1875 African Americans, and 1494 Hispanic Americans in the multiethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort. We selected the first principal component as a continuous MetS score (MetS-PC). Cox proportional hazards models were used to examine the association between MetS-PC and 5.5 years of CVD events (n = 377) adjusting for age, gender, race, smoking and LDL-C, overall and by ethnicity. To facilitate comparison of MetS-PC with the binary NCEP definition, a MetS-PC cut point was chosen to yield the same 37% prevalence of MetS as the NCEP definition (37%) in the MESA cohort. Hazard ratio (HR) for CVD events were estimated using the NCEP and Mets-PC-derived binary definitions. In Cox proportional models, the HR (95% CI) for CVD events for 1-SD (standard deviation) of MetS-PC was 1.71 (1.54–1.90) (P < 0.0001) overall after adjusting for potential confounders, and for each ethnicity, HRs were: Caucasian, 1.64 (1.39–1.94), Chinese, 1.39 (1.06–1.83), African, 1.67 (1.37–2.02), and Hispanic, 2.10 (1.66-2.65). Finally, when binary definitions were compared, HR for CVD events was 2.34 (1.91–2.87) for MetS-PC versus 1.79 (1.46–2.20) for NCEP MetS. In the Health ABC cohort, in a fully adjusted model, MetS-PC per 1-SD (Health ABC) remained associated with CVD events (HR = 1.21, 95%CI 1.12–1.32) overall, and for each ethnicity, Caucasian (HR = 1.24, 95%CI 1.12–1.39) and African Americans (HR = 1.16, 95%CI 1.01–1.32). Finally, when using a binary definition of MetS-PC (cut point 0.505) designed to match the NCEP definition in terms of prevalence in the Health ABC cohort (35%), the fully adjusted HR for CVD events was 1.39, 95%CI 1.17–1.64 compared with 1.46, 95%CI 1.23–1.72 using the NCEP definition. Conclusion. MetS-PC is a continuous measure of metabolic syndrome and was a better predictor of CVD events overall and in individual ethnicities. Additionally, a binary MetS-PC definition was better than the NCEP MetS definition in predicting incident CVD events in the MESA cohort, but this superiority was not evident in the Health ABC cohort.