SUMMARY

Ubiquitin modification is mediated by a large family of specificity determining ubiquitin E3 ligases. To facilitate ubiquitin transfer, RING E3 ligases bind both substrate and a ubiquitin E2 conjugating enzyme linked to ubiquitin via a thioester bond, but the mechanism of transfer has remained elusive. Here we report the crystal structure of the dimeric RING of RNF4 in complex with E2 (UbcH5a) linked by an isopeptide bond to ubiquitin. While the E2 contacts a single protomer of the RING, ubiquitin is folded back onto the E2 by contacts from both RING protomers. The C-terminal tail of ubiquitin is locked into an active site groove on the E2 by an intricate network of interactions, resulting in changes at the E2 active site. This arrangement is primed for catalysis as it can deprotonate the incoming substrate lysine residue and stabilise the consequent tetrahedral transition state intermediate.

Summary

The Escherichia coli serotype O9a O-antigen polysaccharide (O-PS) is a model for glycan biosynthesis and export by the ATP-binding cassette transporter-dependent pathway. The polymannose O9a O-PS is synthesized as a polyprenol-linked glycan by mannosyltransferase enzymes located at the cytoplasmic membrane. The chain length of the O9a O-PS is tightly regulated by the WbdD enzyme. WbdD first phosphorylates the terminal non-reducing mannose of the O-PS and then methylates the phosphate, stopping polymerization. The 2.2 Å resolution structure of WbdD reveals a bacterial methyltransferase domain joined to a eukaryotic kinase domain. The kinase domain is again fused to an extended C-terminal coiled-coil domain reminiscent of eukaryotic DMPK (Myotonic Dystrophy Protein Kinase) family kinases such as Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK). WbdD phosphorylates 2-α-d-mannosyl-d-mannose (2α-MB), a short mimic of the O9a polymer. Mutagenesis identifies those residues important in catalysis and substrate recognition and the in vivo phenotypes of these mutants are used to dissect the termination reaction. We have determined the structures of co-complexes of WbdD with two known eukaryotic protein kinase inhibitors. Although these are potent inhibitors in vitro, they do not show any in vivo activity. The structures reveal new insight into O-PS chain-length regulation in this important model system.

A focused strategy has been directed towards the structural characterization of selected proteins from the bacterial pathogen P. aeruginosa. The objective is to exploit the resulting structural data, in combination with ligand-binding studies, and to assess the potential of these proteins for early-stage antimicrobial drug discovery.

Bacterial infections are increasingly difficult to treat owing to the spread of antibiotic resistance. A major concern is Gram-negative bacteria, for which the discovery of new antimicrobial drugs has been particularly scarce. In an effort to accelerate early steps in drug discovery, the EU-funded AEROPATH project aims to identify novel targets in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa by applying a multidisciplinary approach encompassing target validation, structural characterization, assay development and hit identification from small-molecule libraries. Here, the strategies used for target selection are described and progress in protein production and structure analysis is reported. Of the 102 selected targets, 84 could be produced in soluble form and the de novo structures of 39 proteins have been determined. The crystal structures of eight of these targets, ranging from hypothetical unknown proteins to metabolic enzymes from different functional classes (PA1645, PA1648, PA2169, PA3770, PA4098, PA4485, PA4992 and PA5259), are reported here. The structural information is expected to provide a firm basis for the improvement of hit compounds identified from fragment-based and high-throughput screening campaigns.

The discovery of mechanosensing channels has changed our understanding of bacterial physiology. The mechanosensitive channel of small conductance (MscS) is perhaps the most intensively studied of these channels. MscS has at least two states: closed, which does not allow solutes to exit the cytoplasm, and open, which allows rapid efflux of solvent and solutes. The ability to appropriately open or close the channel (gating) is critical to bacterial survival. We briefly review the science that led to the isolation and identification of MscS. We concentrate on the structure-function relationship of the channel, in particular the structural and biochemical approaches to understanding channel gating. We highlight the troubling discrepancies between the various models developed to understand MscS gating.

Summary

The outer membrane protein, Wza from E. coli K30, forms an octameric complex that is essential for capsular polysaccharide export. Homologs of Wza are widespread in gram-negative bacterial pathogens where capsules are critical virulence determinants. Wza is unusual in that it spans the outer membrane using a barrel composed of amphipathic α-helices, rather than being a β-barrel like almost all other outer membrane channels. The transmembrane helical barrel of Wza also forms the external opening to a hydrophilic translocation pathway that spans the periplasm. Here, we have probed the structure and function of the Wza complex using both cryo-electron microscopy and mutagenesis. The helical barrel structure is stable in detergent micelles under mildly acidic conditions but is destabilised at basic pH, although the overall quaternary structure is retained. Truncation of the C-terminal region that forms the helical barrel by 4 residues has no effect on the ability of Wza to oligomerize and support capsule export, but larger truncations of 18, 24 or 35 amino acids abolish its function. The bulk of the C-terminal domain is essential for the stability and assembly of the E. coli Wza complex.

Summary

The Escherichia coli serotype O9a O-antigen polysaccharide (O-PS) is a model for glycan biosynthesis and export by the ATP-binding cassette transporter-dependent pathway. The polymannose O9a O-PS is synthesized as a polyprenol-linked glycan by mannosyltransferase enzymes located at the cytoplasmic membrane. The chain length of the O9a O-PS is tightly regulated by the WbdD enzyme. WbdD first phosphorylates the terminal non-reducing mannose of the O-PS and then methylates the phosphate, stopping polymerization. The 2.2 Å resolution structure of WbdD reveals a bacterial methyltransferase domain joined to a eukaryotic kinase domain. The kinase domain is again fused to an extended C-terminal coiled-coil domain reminiscent of eukaryotic DMPK (Myotonic Dystrophy Protein Kinase) family kinases such as Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK). WbdD phosphorylates 2-α-d-mannosyl-d-mannose (2α-MB), a short mimic of the O9a polymer. Mutagenesis identifies those residues important in catalysis and substrate recognition and the in vivo phenotypes of these mutants are used to dissect the termination reaction. We have determined the structures of co-complexes of WbdD with two known eukaryotic protein kinase inhibitors. Although these are potent inhibitors in vitro, they do not show any in vivo activity. The structures reveal new insight into O-PS chain-length regulation in this important model system.

Peptide macrocycles are found in many biologically active natural products. Their versatility, resistance to proteolysis and ability to traverse membranes has made them desirable molecules. Although technologies exist to synthesize such compounds, the full extent of diversity found among natural macrocycles has yet to be achieved synthetically. Cyanobactins are ribosomal peptide macrocycles encompassing an extraordinarily diverse range of ring sizes, amino acids and chemical modifications. We report the structure, biochemical characterization and initial engineering of the PatG macrocyclase domain of Prochloron sp. from the patellamide pathway that catalyzes the macrocyclization of linear peptides. The enzyme contains insertions in the subtilisin fold to allow it to recognize a three-residue signature, bind substrate in a preorganized and unusual conformation, shield an acyl-enzyme intermediate from water and catalyze peptide bond formation. The ability to macrocyclize a broad range of nonactivated substrates has wide biotechnology applications.

The optimization of WbdD crystals using a novel dehydration protocol and experimental phasing at 3.5 Å resolution by cross-crystal averaging followed by molecular replacement of electron density into a non-isomorphous 3.0 Å resolution native data set are reported.

WbdD is a bifunctional kinase/methyltransferase that is responsible for regulation of lipopolysaccharide O antigen polysaccharide chain length in Escherichia coli serotype O9a. Solving the crystal structure of this protein proved to be a challenge because the available crystals belonging to space group I23 only diffracted to low resolution (>95% of the crystals diffracted to resolution lower than 4 Å and most only to 8 Å) and were non-isomorphous, with changes in unit-cell dimensions of greater than 10%. Data from a serendipitously found single native crystal that diffracted to 3.0 Å resolution were non-isomorphous with a lower (3.5 Å) resolution selenomethionine data set. Here, a strategy for improving poor (3.5 Å resolution) initial phases by density modification and cross-crystal averaging with an additional 4.2 Å resolution data set to build a crude model of WbdD is desribed. Using this crude model as a mask to cut out the 3.5 Å resolution electron density yielded a successful molecular-replacement solution of the 3.0 Å resolution data set. The resulting map was used to build a complete model of WbdD. The hydration status of individual crystals appears to underpin the variable diffraction quality of WbdD crystals. After the initial structure had been solved, methods to control the hydration status of WbdD were developed and it was thus possible to routinely obtain high-resolution diffraction (to better than 2.5 Å resolution). This novel and facile crystal-dehydration protocol may be useful for similar challenging situations.

Hel308 is a superfamily 2 helicase conserved in eukaryotes and archaea. It is thought to function in the early stages of recombination following replication fork arrest, and has a specificity for removal of the lagging strand in model replication forks. A homologous helicase constitutes the N-terminal domain of human DNA polymerase Q. The Drosophila homologue mus301 is implicated in double strand break repair and meiotic recombination. We have solved the high-resolution crystal structure of Hel308 from the crenarchaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, revealing a five-domain structure with a central pore lined with essential DNA binding residues. The fifth domain is shown to act as a molecular brake, clamping the ssDNA extruded through the central pore of the helicase structure to limit the enzyme’s helicase activity. This provides an elegant mechanism to tune the enzyme’s processivity to its functional role. Hel308 can displace streptavidin from a biotinylated DNA molecule, suggesting that one function of the enzyme may be in the removal of bound proteins at stalled replication forks and recombination intermediates.

Summary

The prokaryotic Clusters of Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) system utilizes genomically-encoded CRISPR RNA (crRNA), derived from invading viruses and incorporated into ribonucleoprotein complexes with CRISPR-associated (CAS) proteins, to target and degrade viral DNA or RNA on subsequent infection. RNA is targeted by the CMR complex. In Sulfolobus solfataricus, this complex is composed of seven CAS protein subunits (Cmr1-7) and carries a diverse “payload” of targeting crRNA. The crystal structure of Cmr7 and low resolution structure of the complex are presented. S. solfataricus CMR cleaves RNA targets in an endonucleolytic reaction at UA dinucleotides. This activity is dependent on the 8-nucleotide repeat-derived 5′ sequence in the crRNA, but not on the presence of a proto-spacer associated motif (PAM) in the target. Both target and guide RNAs can be cleaved, although a single molecule of guide RNA can support the degradation of multiple targets.

In recent years, interfacial mobility has gained popularity as a model with which to rationalize both affinity in ligand binding and the often observed phenomenon of enthalpy-entropy compensation. While protein contraction and reduced mobility, as demonstrated by computational and NMR techniques respectively, have been correlated to entropies of binding for a variety of systems, to our knowledge, Raman difference spectroscopy has never been included in these analyses. Here, non-resonance Raman difference spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and x-ray crystallography were utilized to correlate protein contraction, as demonstrated by an increase in protein interior packing and decreased residual protein movement, with trends of enthalpy-entropy compensation. These results are in accord with the interfacial mobility model, and lend additional credence to this view of protein activity.

Escherichia coli and Gram-negative bacteria that live in the human gut must be able to tolerate rapid and large changes in environmental pH. Low pH irreversibly denatures and precipitates many bacterial proteins. While cytoplasmic proteins are well buffered against such swings, periplasmic proteins are not. Instead, it appears that some bacteria utilize chaperone proteins that stabilize periplasmic proteins, preventing their precipitation. Two highly expressed and related proteins, HdeA and HdeB, have been identified as acid-activated chaperones. The structure of HdeA is known and a mechanism for activation has been proposed. In this model, dimeric HdeA dissociates at low pH, and the exposed dimeric interface binds exposed hydrophobic surfaces of acid-denatured proteins, preventing their irreversible aggregation. We now report the structure and biophysical characterization of the HdeB protein. The monomer of HdeB shares a similar structure with HdeA, but its dimeric interface is different in composition and spatial location. We have used fluorescence to study the behavior of HdeB as pH is lowered, and like HdeA, it dissociates to monomers. We have identified one of the key intersubunit interactions that controls pH-induced monomerization. Our analysis identifies a structural interaction within the HdeB monomer that is disrupted as pH is lowered, leading to enhanced structural flexibility.

Summary

DNA recombinases (RecA in bacteria, Rad51 in eukarya and RadA in archaea) catalyse strand-exchange between homologous DNA molecules, the central reaction of homologous recombination, and are among the most conserved DNA repair proteins known. In bacteria, RecA is the sole protein responsible for this reaction, whereas, in eukaryotes, there are several RAD51 paralogs that cooperate to catalyse strand exchange. All archaea have at least one (and as many as four) RadA paralogs, but their function remains unclear. Here we show the three RadA paralogs encoded by the Sulfolobus solfataricus genome are expressed under normal growth conditions, and are not UV-inducible. We demonstrate that one of these proteins, Sso2452, which is representative of the large aRadC sub-family of archaeal RadA paralogs, functions as an ATPase that binds tightly to ssDNA. However, Sso2452 is not an active recombinase in vitro, and inhibits D-loop formation by RadA. We present the high-resolution crystal structure of Sso2452, which reveals key structural differences from the canonical RecA family recombinases that may explain its functional properties. The possible roles of the archaeal RadA paralogs in vivo are discussed.

A product structure of the halomethane producing enzyme in plants (Arabidopsis thaliana) is reported and a model for presentation of chloride/bromide ion to the methyl group of S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is presented to rationalise nucleophilic halide attack for halomethane production, gaseous natural products that are produced globally.

The structure of 3-methyladenine DNA glycosylase I in complex with 3-methyladenine is reported.

The removal of chemically damaged DNA bases such as 3-methyladenine (3-­MeA) is an essential process in all living organisms and is catalyzed by the enzyme 3-MeA DNA glycosylase I. A key question is how the enzyme selectively recognizes the alkylated 3-MeA over the much more abundant adenine. The crystal structures of native and Y16F-mutant 3-MeA DNA glycosylase I from Staphylococcus aureus in complex with 3-MeA are reported to 1.8 and 2.2 Å resolution, respectively. Isothermal titration calorimetry shows that protonation of 3-MeA decreases its binding affinity, confirming previous fluorescence studies that show that charge–charge recognition is not critical for the selection of 3-MeA over adenine. It is hypothesized that the hydrogen-bonding pattern of Glu38 and Tyr16 of 3-MeA DNA glycosylase I with a particular tautomer unique to 3-MeA contributes to recognition and selection.

Siderophores are known virulence factors and their biosynthesis is a target for new antibacterial agents. A nonribosomal peptide synthetase independent siderophore (NIS) biosynthetic pathway in Dickeya dadantii is responsible for production of the siderophore achromobactin. The D. dadantii AcsD enzyme has been shown to enantioselectively esterify citric acid with L-serine in the first committed step of achromobactin biosynthesis. The reaction occurs in two steps: stereospecific activation of citric acid by adenylation, followed by attack of the enzyme bound citryl adenylate by L-serine to give the homochiral ester. We now report a detailed characterization of the substrate profile and mechanism of the second (acyl transfer) step of AcsD enzyme. We demonstrate that the enzyme catalyzes formation of not only esters, but also amides from the citryl-adenylate intermediate. We have rationalized the substrate utilization profile for the acylation reaction by determining the first X-ray crystal structure of a product complex for this enzyme class. We have identified the residues that are important for both recognition of L-serine and catalysis of ester formation. Our hypotheses were tested by biochemical analysis of various mutants, one of which shows a reversal of specificity from the wild type with respect to non-natural substrates. This change can be rationalized on the basis of our structural data. That this change in specificity is accompanied by no loss in activity suggests that AcsD and other members of the NIS synthetase superfamily may have biotransformation potential.

Cathepsin L mutants with the ability to condense silica from solution have been generated and a 1.5 Å crystal structure of one of these chimeras allows us to rationalize the catalytic mechanism of silicic acid condensation.

Mammalian RNF4 is a dimeric RING ubiquitin E3 ligase that ubiquitylates poly-SUMOylated proteins. We found that RNF4 bound ubiquitin-charged UbcH5a tightly but free UbcH5a weakly. To provide insight into the mechanism of RING-mediated ubiquitylation we docked the UbcH5~ubiquitin thioester onto the RNF4 RING structure. This revealed that with E2 bound to one monomer of RNF4, the thioester-linked ubiquitin could reach across the dimer to engage the other monomer. In this model the “Ile44 hydrophobic patch” of ubiquitin is predicted to engage a conserved tyrosine located at the dimer interface of the RING and mutation of these residues blocked ubiquitylation activity. Thus, dimeric RING ligases are not simply inert scaffolds that bring substrate and E2-loaded ubiquitin into close proximity. Instead, they facilitate ubiquitin transfer by preferentially binding the E2~ubiquitin thioester across the dimer and activating the thioester bond for catalysis.

The cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria protects the organism from environmental stresses, components of the innate immune response, and the actions of other antagonistic molecules. However, the complexity of the cell envelope dictated by these protective roles creates a significant challenge for assembly of the outer membrane. Extensive research has focused on the export and assembly of outer membrane proteins and there is continuing progress in this area. By contrast, knowledge of the export and assembly of complex glycoconjugates in the outer membrane has been limited until recently. New structural and biochemical information identifies an envelope-spanning molecular scaffold for the export of group 1 capsular polysaccharides and provides insight into a complex molecular machine.

Uridine diphosphogalactofuranose (UDP-Galf) is the precursor of the D-galactofuranose sugar found in bacterial and parasitic cell walls, including those of many pathogens. UDP-Galf is made from UDP-galactopyranose by the enzyme UDP-galactopyranose mutase. The enzyme requires the reduced FADH− co-factor for activity. The structure of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutase with FAD has been determined to 2.25Å. The structures of Klebsiella pneumoniae mutase with FAD and with FADH− bound have been determined to 2.2Å and 2.35Å resolutions respectively. This is the first report of the FADH− containing structure. Two flavin dependent mechanisms for the enzyme have been proposed, one which involves a covalent adduct being formed at the flavin and the other based on electron transfer. Using our structural data, we have examined the two mechanisms. The electron transfer mechanism is consistent with the structural data, not surprisingly since it makes fewer demands on the precise positioning of atoms. A model based on a covalent adduct FAD requires repositioning of the enzyme active site and would appear to require that the isoalloxazine ring of FADH− to buckle in a particular way. However, the FADH− structure reveals that the isoalloxazine ring buckles in the opposite sense, this apparently requires the covalent adduct to trigger profound conformational changes in the protein or to buckle the FADH− opposite to that seen in the apo structure.

Recently a fluorination enzyme was identified and isolated from Streptomyces cattleya, as the first committed step on the metabolic pathway to the fluorinated metabolites, fluoroacetate and 4-fluorothreonine. This enzyme, 5′-fluoro-5′-deoxy adenosine synthetase (FDAS), has been shown to catalyze C-F bond formation by nucleophilic attack of fluoride ion to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) with the concomitant displacement of L-methionine to generate 5′-fluoro-5′-deoxy adenosine (5′-FDA). Although the structures of FDAS bound to both SAM and products have been solved, the molecular mechanism remained to be elucidated. We now report site directed mutagenesis studies, structural analyses and isothermal calorimetry (ITC) experiments. The data establish the key residues required for catalysis and the order of substrate binding. Fluoride ion is not readily distinguished from water by protein X-ray crystallography, however using chloride ion (also a substrate) with mutants of low activity has enabled the halide ion to be located in non-productive co-complexes with SAH and SAM. The kinetic data suggest the positively charged sulfur of SAM is a key requirement in stabilizing the transition state. We propose a molecular mechanism for FDAS in which fluoride weakly associates with the enzyme exchanging two water molecules for protein ligation. The binding of SAM expels remaining water associated with fluoride ion and traps the ion in a pocket positioned to react with SAM, generating L-methionine and 5′-FDA. L-SAM then dissociates from the enzyme followed by 5′-FDA.

2-Keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate (KDPG) and 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogalactonate (KDPGal) aldolases catalyze an identical reaction differing in substrate specificity in only the configuration of a single stereocenter. However, the proteins show little sequence homology at the amino acid level. Here we investigate the determinants of substrate selectivity of these enzymes. The Escherichia coli KDPGal aldolase gene, cloned into a T7 expression vector and overexpressed in E. coli, catalyzes retro-aldol cleavage of the natural substrate, KDPGal, with values of kcat/KM and kcat of 1.9 × 104 M−1 s−1 and 4 s−1, respectively. In the synthetic direction, KDPGal aldolase efficiently catalyzes an aldol addition using a limited number of aldehyde substrates, including D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (natural substrate), D-glyceraldehyde, glycolaldehyde, and 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde. A preparative scale reaction between 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde and pyruvate catalyzed by KDPGal aldolase produced the aldol adduct of the Rstereochemistry in >99.7% ee, a result complementary to that observed using the related KDPG aldolase. The native crystal structure has been solved to a resolution of 2.4 Å and displays the same (α/β)8 topology, as KDPG aldolase. We have also determined a 2.1 Å structure of a Schiff base complex between the enzyme and its substrate. This model predicts that a single amino acid change, T161 in KDPG aldolase to V154 in KDPGal aldolase, plays an important role in determining the stereochemical course of enzyme catalysis and this prediction was borne out by site-directed mutagenesis studies. However, additional changes in the enzyme sequence are required to prepare an enzyme with both high catalytic efficiency and altered stereochemistry.

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-specific protease SENP1 processes SUMO-1, SUMO-2 and SUMO-3 to mature forms and deconjugates them from modified proteins. To establish the proteolytic mechanism, we determined structures of catalytically inactive SENP1 bound to SUMO-1–modified RanGAP1 and to unprocessed SUMO-1. In each case, the scissile peptide bond is kinked at a right angle to the C-terminal tail of SUMO-1 and has the cis configuration of the amide nitrogens. SENP1 preferentially processes SUMO-1 over SUMO-2, but binding thermodynamics of full-length SUMO-1 and SUMO-2 to SENP1 and Km values for processing are very similar. However, kcat values differ by 50-fold. Thus, discrimination between unprocessed SUMO-1 and SUMO-2 by SENP1 is based on a catalytic step rather than substrate binding and is likely to reflect differences in the ability of SENP1 to correctly orientate the scissile bonds in SUMO-1 and SUMO-2.

A series of selectively fluorinated and other substituted UDP-d-galactose derivatives have been evaluated as substrates for Klebsiella pneumoniae UDP-d-galactopyranose mutase. This enzyme, which catalyses the interconversion of the pyranose and furanose forms of galactose as its UDP adduct, is a prospective drug target for a variety of microbial infections. We show that none of the 2″-, 3″- or 6″-hydroxyl groups of UDP-d-galactopyranose are essential for substrate binding and turnover. However, steric factors appear to play an important role in limiting the range of substitutions that can be accommodated at C-2″ and C-6″ of the sugar nucleotide substrate. Attempts to invert the C-2″ stereochemistry from equatorial to axial, changing d-galacto- to d-talo-configuration, in an attempt to exploit the higher percentage of furanose at equilibrium in the talo-series, met with no turnover of substrate.

Summary

The XPD helicase (Rad3 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is a component of transcription factor IIH (TFIIH), which functions in transcription initiation and Nucleotide Excision Repair in eukaryotes, catalysing DNA duplex opening localised to the transcription start site or site of DNA damage, respectively. XPD has a 5′ to 3′ polarity and the helicase activity is dependent on an iron-sulfur cluster binding domain, a feature that is conserved in related helicases such as FancJ. The xpd gene is the target of mutation in patients with xeroderma pigentosum, trichothiodystrophy and Cockayne’s syndrome, characterised by a wide spectrum of symptoms ranging from cancer susceptibility to neurological and developmental defects. The 2.25 Å crystal structure of XPD from the crenarchaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii, presented here together with detailed biochemical analyses, allows a molecular understanding of the structural basis for helicase activity and explains the phenotypes of xpd mutations in humans.