Thyroid hormone (T3) mediates diverse physiological functions including growth, differentiation, and energy homeostasis through the thyroid hormone receptors (TR). The TR bind DNA at specific recognition sequences in the promoter regions of their target genes known as the thyroid hormone response elements (TREs). Gene expression at TREs regulated by TRs is mediated by coregulator recruitment to the DNA bound receptor. This TR-coregulator interaction controls transcription of target genes by multiple mechanisms including covalent histone modifications and chromatin remodeling. Our previous studies identified a β-aminoketone as a potent inhibitor of the TR-coactivator interaction. We describe here the activity of one of these inhibitors in modulating effects of T3 signaling in comparison to an established ligand-competitive inhibitor of TR, NH-3. The β-aminoketone was found to reverse thyroid hormone induced gene expression by inhibiting coactivator recruitment at target gene promoters, thereby regulating downstream effects of thyroid hormone. While mimicking the downstream effects of a ligand competitive inhibitor at the molecular level, the β-aminoketone affects only a subset of the thyroid responsive signaling network. Thus antagonists directed to the coregulator binding site have distinct pharmacological properties relative to ligand based antagonists and may provide complementary activity in vivo.

The thyroid hormone receptors (TR) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor (NHR) superfamily that regulate development, growth, and metabolism. Upon ligand binding, TR releases bound corepressors and recruits coactivators to modulate target gene expression. Steroid Receptor Coactivator 2 (SRC2) is an important coregulator that interacts with TRβ to activate gene transcription. To identify novel inhibitors of the TRβ and SRC2 interaction, we performed a quantitative high throughput screen (qHTS) of a TRβ-SRC2 fluorescence polarization assay against more than 290,000 small molecules. The qHTS assayed compounds at six concentrations up to 92 uM to generate titration-response curves and determine the potency and efficacy of all compounds. The qHTS dataset enabled the characterization of actives for structure-activity relationships as well as for potential artifacts such as fluorescence interference. Selected qHTS actives were tested in the screening assay using fluoroprobes labeled with Texas Red or fluorescein. The retest identified 19 series and 4 singletons as active in both assays with 40% or greater efficacy, free of compound interference and not toxic to mammalian cells. Selected compounds were tested as independent samples and a methylsulfonylnitrobenzoate series inhibited the TRβ-SRC2 interaction with 5 uM IC50. This series represents a new class of thyroid hormone receptor-coactivator modulators.

Typical assays used to discover and analyze small molecules that inhibit the hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3 helicase yield few hits and are often confounded by compound interference. Oligonucleotide binding assays are examined here as an alternative. After comparing fluorescence polarization (FP), homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF®; Cisbio) and AlphaScreen® (Perkin Elmer) assays, an FP-based assay was chosen to screen Sigma’s Library of Pharmacologically Active Compounds (LOPAC) for compounds that inhibit NS3-DNA complex formation. Four LOPAC compounds inhibited the FP-based assay: aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) (IC50 = 1.4 μM), suramin sodium salt (IC50 = 3.6 μM), NF 023 hydrate (IC50 = 6.2 μM) and tyrphostin AG 538 (IC50 = 3.6 μM). All but AG 538 inhibited helicase-catalyzed strand separation, and all but NF 023 inhibited replication of subgenomic HCV replicons. A counterscreen using Escherichia coli single-stranded DNA binding protein (SSB) revealed that none of the new HCV helicase inhibitors were specific for NS3h. However, when the SSB-based assay was used to analyze derivatives of another non-specific helicase inhibitor, the main component of the dye primuline, it revealed that some primuline derivatives (e.g. PubChem CID50930730) are up to 30-fold more specific for HCV NS3h than similarly potent HCV helicase inhibitors.

Background

Numerous vitamin-D analogs exhibited poor response rates, high systemic toxicities and hypercalcemia in human trials to treat cancer. We identified the first non-hypercalcemic anti-cancer vitamin D analog MT19c by altering the A-ring of ergocalciferol. This study describes the therapeutic efficacy and mechanism of action of MT19c in both in vitro and in vivo models.

Methodology/Principal Finding

Antitumor efficacy of MT19c was evaluated in ovarian cancer cell (SKOV-3) xenografts in nude mice and a syngenic rat ovarian cancer model. Serum calcium levels of MT19c or calcitriol treated animals were measured. In-silico molecular docking simulation and a cell based VDR reporter assay revealed MT19c–VDR interaction. Genomewide mRNA analysis of MT19c treated tumors identified drug targets which were verified by immunoblotting and microscopy. Quantification of cellular malonyl CoA was carried out by HPLC-MS. A binding study with PPAR-Y receptor was performed. MT19c reduced ovarian cancer growth in xenograft and syngeneic animal models without causing hypercalcemia or acute toxicity. MT19c is a weak vitamin-D receptor (VDR) antagonist that disrupted the interaction between VDR and coactivator SRC2-3. Genome-wide mRNA analysis and western blot and microscopy of MT19c treated xenograft tumors showed inhibition of fatty acid synthase (FASN) activity. MT19c reduced cellular levels of malonyl CoA in SKOV-3 cells and inhibited EGFR/phosphoinositol-3kinase (PI-3K) activity independently of PPAR-gamma protein.

Significance

Antitumor effects of non-hypercalcemic agent MT19c provide a new approach to the design of vitamin-D based anticancer molecules and a rationale for developing MT19c as a therapeutic agent for malignant ovarian tumors by targeting oncogenic de novo lipogenesis.

The androgen receptor (AR), which mediates the signals of androgens, plays a crucial role in prostate related diseases. Although widely used, currently marketed anti-androgenic drugs have significant side effects. Several studies have revealed that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like flufenamic acid, block AR transcriptional activity. Herein we describe the development of small molecule analogs of flufenamic acid that antagonize AR. This novel class of AR inhibitors binds to the hormone binding site, blocks AR transcription activity, and acts on AR target genes.

We have previously reported the discovery and preliminary structure activity relationships of a series of β-aminoketones that disrupt the binding of coactivators to TR. However, the most active compounds had moderate inhibitory potency and relatively high cytotoxicity, resulting in narrow therapeutic index. Additionally, preliminary evaluation of in vivo toxicology revealed a significant dose related cardiotoxicity. Here we describe the improvement of pharmacological properties of thyroid hormone receptor coactivator binding inhibitors. A comprehensive survey of the effects of substitutents in key areas of the molecule was carried out, based on mechanistic insight from the earlier report. This study revealed that both electron withdrawing and hydrophobic substituents on the aromatic ring led to higher potency. On the other hand, moving from an alkyl to a sulfonyl alkyl side chain led to reduced cytotoxicity. Finally, utilization of amine moieties having low pKa’s resulted in lowered ion channel activity without any loss of pharmacological activity.

Small molecule dimer disruptors that inhibit an essential dimeric protease of human Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) were identified by screening an α-helical mimetic library. Subsequently, a second generation of low micromolar inhibitors with improved potency and solubility was synthesized. Complementary methods including size exclusion chromatography and 1H-13C HSQC titration using selectively labeled 13C-Met samples revealed that monomeric protease is enriched in the presence of inhibitor. 1H-15N-HSQC titration studies mapped the inhibitor binding-site to the dimer interface, and mutagenesis studies targeting this region were consistent with a mechanism where inhibitor binding prevents dimerization through the conformational selection of a dynamic intermediate. These results validate the interface of herpesvirus proteases and other similar oligomeric interactions as suitable targets for the development of small molecule inhibitors.

The vitamin D receptor (VDR) regulates a diverse set of genes that control processes including bone mineral homeostasis, immune function and hair follicle cycling. Upon binding to its natural ligand, 1α,25(OH)2D3, the VDR undergoes a conformational change that allows the release of corepressor proteins and the binding of coactivator proteins necessary for gene transcription. We report the first comprehensive evaluation of the interaction of the VDR with a library of coregulator binding motifs in the presence of two ligands, the natural ligand 1α,25(OH)2D3 and a synthetic, non-secosteroidal agonist LG190178. We show that the VDR has relatively high affinity for the second and third LxxLL motifs of SRC1, SRC2 and SRC3 and second LxxLL motif of DRIP205. This pattern is distinct in comparison to other nuclear receptors. The pattern of VDR-coregulator binding affinities was very similar for the two agonists investigated, suggesting that the biologic functions of LG190178 and 1α,25(OH)2D3 are similar. Hairless binds the VDR in the presence of ligand through a LxxLL motif (Hr-1), repressing transcription in the presence and absence of ligand. The VDR binding patterns identified in this study may be used to predict functional differences among different tissues expressing different sets of coregulators, thus facilitating the goal of developing tissue and gene specific vitamin D response modulators.

Standardized, automated ligand binding assays facilitate evaluation of endocrine activities of environmental chemicals and identification of antagonists of nuclear receptor ligands. Many current assays rely on fluorescently labeled ligands which are significantly different from the native ligands. We describe a radiolabeled ligand competition scintillation proximity assay (SPA) for the androgen receptor (AR) using Ni-coated 384-well FlashPlates® and liganded AR-LBD protein. This highly reproducible, low cost assay is well-suited for automated HTS. Additionally, we show that this assay can be adapted to measure ligand affinities for other nuclear receptors (peroxisome proliferation activated receptor γ, thyroid receptors α and β).

Two BODIPY-labeled colchicine derivatives were synthesized and shown to bind to tubulin but only partially inhibit tubulin polymerization in the presence of GTP. Cytotoxicity studies were carried out in HeLa, HepG2, Raji and Vero cells. Apoptosis-inducing properties were determined by caspase 3/7 activity and flow cytometry and interactions between the derivatives and tubulin were verified by fluorescence microscopy of living cells.

The modulation of gene regulation by blocking the interaction between the thyroid receptor (TR) and obligate coregulators (CoRs) has been reported recently with discovery of the lead compound 3-(dimethylamino)-1-(4-hexylphenyl)propan-1-one). Herein we report studies aimed at optimization of this initial hit to determine the basic parameters of the structure–activity relationships (SAR) and clarify the mechanism of action. These studies provided new insights, showing that activity and TRβ isoform selectivity is highly correlated with the structural composition of these covalent inhibitors.