Although imatinib mesylate (IM) has transformed the treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), many patients experience primary/secondary drug resistance. In a previous study, we identified a gene signature, consisting mainly of Kruppel-associated box (KRAB) domain containing zinc finger (ZNF) transcriptional repressors that predict short-term response to IM. To determine if these genes have functional significance, a siRNA library targeting these genes was constructed and applied to GIST cells in vitro. These screens identified seventeen “IM sensitizing genes” in GIST cells (sensitization index (SI) <0.85 ratio of drug/vehicle) with a false discovery rate (FDR) <15%, including twelve ZNF genes, the majority of which are located within the HSA19p12–13.1 locus. These genes were shown to be highly specific to IM and another tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), sunitinib, in GIST cells. In order to determine mechanistically how these ZNFs might be modulating response to IM, RNAi approaches were used to individually silence genes within the predictive signature in GIST cells and expression profiling was performed. Knockdown of the 14 IM-sensitizing genes (10 ZNFs) universally led to downregulation of six genes, including TGFb3, periostin, and NEDD9. These studies implicate a role of KRAB-ZNFs in modulating response to TKIs in GIST.

Toll-like receptors are potent activators of the innate immune system and generate signals leading to the initiation of the adaptive immune response that can be utilized for therapeutic purposes. We tested the hypothesis that combined treatment with a toll-like receptor agonist and an anti-tumor monoclonal antibody is effective and induces host-protective anti-tumor immunity. C57BL/6 human mutated HER2 (hmHER2) transgenic mice that constitutively express kinase-deficient human HER2 under control of the CMV promoter were established. These mice demonstrate immunological tolerance to D5-HER2, a syngeneic human HER2-expressing melanoma cell line. This human HER2 tolerant model offers the potential to serve as a preclinical model to test both antibody therapy and the immunization potential of human HER2 targeted therapeutics. Here we show that E6020, a toll like receptor-4 (TLR4) agonist effectively boosted the antitumor efficacy of the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab in immunodeficient C57BL/6 SCID mice as well as in C57BL/6 hmHER2 transgenic mice. E6020 and trastuzumab co-treatment resulted in significantly greater inhibition of tumor growth than was observed with either agent individually. Furthermore, mice treated with the combination of trastuzumab and the TLR4 agonist were protected against re-challenge with human HER2 transfected tumor cells in hmHER2 transgenic mouse strains. These findings suggest that combined treatment with trastuzumab and a TLR4 agonist not only promotes direct anti-tumor effects but also induces a host-protective human HER2-directed adaptive immune response indicative of a memory response. These data provide an immunological rationale for testing TLR4 agonists in combination with antibody therapy in patients with cancer.

Sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of solid tumors arising from either soft tissues or bone, accounting for approximately 1% of all cancers in adults. Management of these diseases has changed little over the past 10 years, with the exception of treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Reasons for this stagnation include multiple histologies commonly grouped together in clinical trials limiting the understanding of benefit of treatment and limited investigation of molecular targeted therapies. More recently, advances in molecular pathogenesis, the advent of novel and targeted therapeutics, and increasing collaborations between sarcoma investigators has helped move the field forward in the right direction. Here, we review the recent data on novel agents tested for the management of adult soft-tissue sarcomas, excluding gastrointestinal stromal tumors.

Purpose

This multicenter randomized trial was designed to test whether melanoma-associated helper peptides augment CD8+ T-cell responses to a melanoma vaccine and whether cyclophosphamide (CY) pretreatment augments CD4+ or CD8+ T-cell responses to that vaccine.

Patients and Methods

In all, 167 eligible patients with resected stage IIB to IV melanoma were randomly assigned to four vaccination study arms. Patients were vaccinated with 12 class I major histocompatibility complex–restricted melanoma peptides (12MP) to stimulate CD8+ T cells and were randomly assigned to receive a tetanus helper peptide or a mixture of six melanoma-associated helper peptides (6MHP) to stimulate CD4+ T cells. Before vaccination, patients were also randomly assigned to receive CY pretreatment or not. T-cell responses were assessed by an ex vivo interferon gamma ELISpot assay. Clinical outcomes and toxicities were recorded.

Results

Vaccination with 12MP plus tetanus induced CD8+ T-cell responses in 78% of patients and CD4+ T-cell responses to tetanus peptide in 93% of patients. Vaccination with 12MP plus 6MHP induced CD8+ responses in 19% of patients and CD4+ responses to 6MHP in 48% of patients. CY had no significant effect on T-cell responses. Overall 3-year survival was 79% (95% CI, 71% to 86%), with no significant differences (at this point) by study arm.

Conclusion

Melanoma-associated helper peptides paradoxically decreased CD8+ T-cell responses to a melanoma vaccine (P < .001), and CY pretreatment had no immunologic or clinical effect. Prior work showed immunologic and clinical activity of 6MHP alone. Possible explanations for negative effects on CD8 responses include modulation of homing receptor expression or induction of antigen-specific regulatory T cells.

Purpose

Aurora A kinase is critical in assembly and function of the mitotic spindle. It is overexpressed in various tumor types and implicated in oncogenesis and tumor progression. This trial evaluated the dose-limiting toxicities (DLTs) and maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of MLN8054, a selective small-molecule inhibitor of Aurora A kinase.

Methods

In this first-in-human, dose-escalation study, MLN8054 was given orally for 7, 14, or 21 days followed by a 14-day treatment-free period. Escalating cohorts of 3–6 patients with advanced solid tumors were treated until DLT was seen in ≥2 patients in a cohort. Serial blood samples were collected for pharmacokinetics and skin biopsies were collected for pharmacodynamics.

Results

Sixty-one patients received 5, 10, 20, 30 or 40 mg once daily for 7 days; 25, 35, 45 or 55 mg/day in four divided doses (QID) for 7 days; or 55, 60, 70 or 80 mg/day plus methylphenidate or modafinil with daytime doses (QID/M) for 7–21 days. DLTs of reversible grade 3 benzodiazepine-like effects defined the estimated MTD of 60 mg QID/M for 14 days. MLN8054 was absorbed rapidly, exposure was dose-proportional, and terminal half-life was 30-40 hours. Three patients had stable disease for >6 cycles.

Conclusions

MLN8054 dosing for up to 14 days of a 28-day cycle was feasible. Reversible somnolence was dose limiting and prevented achievement of plasma concentrations predicted necessary for target modulation. A recommended dose for investigation in phase 2 trials was not established. A second-generation Aurora A kinase inhibitor is in development.

Soft tissue sarcomas are a diverse set of fatal human tumors where few agents have demonstrable clinical efficacy, with the standard therapeutic combination of doxorubicin and ifosfamide showing only a 25–30% response rate in large multi-institutional trials. Although liposarcomas are the most common histological form of adult soft tissue sarcomas, research in this area is severely hampered by the lack of experimentally tractable in vitro model systems. To this end, here we describe a novel in vitro model for human pleomorphic liposarcoma. The cell line (LS2) is derived from a pleomorphic liposarcoma that utilizes the Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres (ALT) mechanism of telomere maintenance, which may be important in modulating the response of this tumor type to DNA damaging agents. We present detailed baseline molecular and genomic data, including genome wide copy number and transcriptome profiles, for this model compared to its parental tumor and a panel of liposarcomas covering multiple histologies. The model has retained essentially all of the detectable alterations in copy number that are seen in the parental tumor, and shows molecular karyotypic and expression profiles consistent with pleomorphic liposarcomas. We also demonstrate the utility of this model, together with two additional human liposarcoma cell lines, to investigate the relationship between topoisomerase 2A expression and the sensitivity of ALT-positive liposarcomas to doxorubicin. This model, together with its associated baseline data, provide a powerful new tool to develop treatments for this clinically poorly-tractable tumor, and to investigate the contribution that ALT makes to modulating sensitivity to doxorubicin.

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors are mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. They commonly metastasize within the abdominal cavity, particularly to the liver. Less commonly, metastases can be found in the lung or bone. This report describes the first two cases of metastasis to the left ventricle in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumor.

Purpose of review

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors are the most common sarcoma of the gastrointestinal tract. A decade ago, the only therapy for gastrointestinal stromal tumors was surgery. Treatment paradigms changed with the discovery that gastrointestinal stromal tumor cells express KIT, a tyrosine kinase growth factor receptor, which is mutated in 85% of cases. Imatinib and sunitinib are tyrosine kinase inhibitors with activity against advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumors. This review will discuss the available data on the use of imatinib in the adjuvant setting and the role of imatinib and sunitinib in the neoadjuvant setting.

Recent findings

Retrospective series and prospective studies have demonstrated the benefit of adjuvant imatinib. Randomized data show improved recurrence free survival in patients receiving imatinib for 1 year postoperatively. Ongoing studies are further defining the length of adjuvant therapy. The neoadjuvant treatment decreases tumor size to allow for surgical resection with less morbidity. The imatinib neoadjuvant therapy in a prospective randomized study was safe with encouraging outcomes. This approach for palliating advanced disease also appears to be safe following imatinib, sunitinib, or other tyrosine kinase inhibitors therapy.

Summary

Treatment for gastrointestinal stromal tumors, formerly limited to surgery, now is a combination of surgery and tyrosine kinase inhibitors therapy. Combination therapy is safe and improves outcomes, particularly in the adjuvant setting.

Purpose

This study was conducted to assess the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the intravenous pan-aurora kinase inhibitor PHA-739358, danusertib, in patients with advanced solid tumors.

Experimental Design

In Part 1, patients received escalating doses of danusertib (24-h infusion every 14 days) without filgrastim (G-CSF). Febrile neutropenia was the dose-limiting toxicity without G-CSF. Further dose escalation was performed in part 2 with G-CSF. Blood samples were collected for danusertib pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Skin biopsies were collected to assess histone H3 phosphorylation (pH3).

Results

Fifty-six patients were treated, 40 in part 1 and 16 in part 2. Febrile neutropenia was the dose limiting toxicity in Part 1 without G-CSF. Most other adverse events were grade 1–2, occurring at doses ≥360 mg/m2 with similar incidence in parts 1 and 2. The MTD without G-CSF is 500 mg/m2. The recommended phase 2 dose (RP2D) in Part 2 with G-CSF is 750 mg/m2. Danusertib demonstrated dose-proportional pharmacokinetics in parts 1 and 2 with a median half-life of 18–26 hours. pH3 modulation in skin biopsies was observed at ≥500 mg/m2. One patient with refractory small cell lung cancer (1000 mg/m2 with G-CSF) had an objective response lasting 23 weeks. One patient with refractory ovarian cancer had 27% tumor regression and 30% CA125 decline.

Conclusions

Danusertib was well tolerated with target inhibition in skin at ≥500 mg/m2. Preliminary evidence of anti-tumor activity, including a PR and several occurrences of prolonged stable disease (SD), was seen across a variety of advanced refractory cancers. Phase II studies are ongoing.

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) generally harbor activating mutations in KIT or PDGFRA. Mutations in these receptor tyrosine kinases lead to dysregulation of downstream signaling pathways that contribute to GIST pathogenesis. GISTs with KIT or PDGFRA mutations also undergo secondary cytogenetic alterations that may indicate the involvement of additional genes important in tumor progression. Approximately 10–15% of adult and 85% of pediatric GISTs do not have mutations in KIT or in PDGFRA. Most mutant adult GISTs display large-scale genomic alterations, but little is know about the mutation-negative tumors. Using genome-wide DNA arrays, we investigated genomic imbalances in a set of 31 GISTs, including 10 KIT/PDGFRA mutation-negative tumors from 9 adults and 1 pediatric case and 21 mutant tumors. While all 21 mutant GISTs exhibited multiple copy number aberrations, notably losses, 8 of the 10 KIT/PDGFRA mutation-negative GISTs exhibited few or no genomic alterations. One KIT/PDGFRA mutation-negative tumor exhibiting numerous genomic changes was found to harbor an alternate activating mutation, in the serine-threonine kinase BRAF. The only other mutation-negative GIST with significant chromosomal imbalances was a recurrent metastatic tumor found to harbor a homozygous deletion in chromosome 9p. Similar findings in several KIT-mutant GISTs identified a minimal overlapping region of deletion of ~0.28 Mbp in 9p21.3 that includes only the CDKN2A/2B genes, which encode inhibitors of cell-cycle kinases. These results suggest that GISTs without activating kinase mutations, whether pediatric or adult, generally exhibit a much lower level of cytogenetic progression than that observed in mutant GISTs.

Purpose

To study the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics (PK) of the selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor nilotinib as a single-agent or in combination with imatinib in patients with advanced imatinib-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST).

Experimental Design

A Phase I intercohort dose-escalation trial was performed in patients who received either (1) single-agent nilotinib 400 mg bid or (2) escalating doses of nilotinib (200 mg qd, 400 mg qd, or 400 mg bid) plus imatinib 400 mg bid (10- and 14-hour interval daily), or (3) nilotinib 400 mg bid plus imatinib 400 mg qd. Safety, PK and tumor assessments were performed.

Results

Oral clearance (CL/F) of nilotinib was similar across the combination groups (mean CL/F=19.1-25.6 L/h), and lower than in the single-agent cohort (mean CL/F=35.6 L/h). A linear relationship between nilotinib daily dose and peak concentration (Cmax) was observed in the combination cohorts. Observed adverse events (AEs) were mostly non-hematological. Frequently reported AEs were rash (40%), fatigue (38%), abdominal pain (36%) and nausea (36%). Severe AEs (grade 3 or 4) included abdominal pain (13%) and rash (9%), the latter mainly with the combination. Thirty-eight patients had stable disease and two patients achieved partial response with a median progression-free survival of 134 days for the entire group.

Conclusions

Nilotinib alone or in combination with imatinib was well tolerated overall and showed clinical activity in imatinib-resistant GIST patients. This Phase I trial identified single-agent nilotinib 400 mg bid or combined with imatinib 400 mg qd as possible Phase II doses for further evaluation.

Purpose

Despite initial efficacy of imatinib mesylate (IM) in most gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) patients, many experience primary/secondary drug resistance. Therefore, clinical management of GIST may benefit from further molecular characterization of tumors before and after IM treatment.

Experimental Design

As part of a recent Phase II Trial of neoadjuvant/adjuvant IM treatment for advanced primary and recurrent operable GISTs (RTOG-S0132), gene expression profiling using oligonucleotide microarrays was performed on tumor samples obtained before and after IM therapy. Patients were classified according to changes in tumor size after treatment based on CT scan measurements. Gene profiling data were evaluated with Statistical Analysis of Microarrays (SAM) to identify differentially expressed genes (in pre-treatment GIST samples).

Results

Based on SAM (FDR=10%), thirty-eight genes were expressed at significantly lower levels in the pre-treatment biopsy samples from tumors that significantly responded to 8 to 12 weeks of IM, i.e., ≥25% tumor reduction. Eighteen of these genes encoded KRAB domain containing zinc finger (KRAB-ZNF) transcriptional repressors. Importantly, ten KRAB-ZNF genes mapped to a single locus on chromosome 19p, and a subset predicted likely response to IM-based therapy in a naïve panel of GISTs. Furthermore, we found that modifying expression of genes within this predictive signature can enhance the sensitivity of GIST cells to IM.

Conclusions

Using clinical pre-treatment biopsy samples from a prospective neoadjuvant phase II trial we have identified a gene signature that includes KRAB-ZNF 91 subfamily members that may be both predictive of and functionally associated with likely response to short term IM treatment.

Synopsis

The management of advanced GIST is increasingly complex due to imatinib refractory disease. Primary resistance to imatinib is uncommon, and most patients progress after development of additional genetic changes. This article reviews management strategies including surgical approaches, local modalities for progressive liver metastases, as well as novel therapeutic agents.

Background:

Therapy for gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) has changed significantly with the use of Imatinib Mesylate (IM). Despite the success of this drug in metastatic GIST, disease progression remains a perplexing clinical issue suggesting the need for multimodality management. There have been no prospective studies either evaluating the neoadjuvant use of IM in primary GIST or as a preoperative cytoreduction agent for metastatic GIST.

Methods:

RTOG 0132 was a prospective phase II study evaluating safety and efficacy of neoadjuvant IM (600 mg/day) for patients with primary GIST or the preop use of IM in patients with operable metastatic GIST. The trial continued postop IM for 2 years.

Results:

63 patients were entered (52 analyzable), 30 patients with primary GIST (Group A) and 22 with metastatic GIST (Group B). Response (RECIST) in Group A was (7% partial, 83% stable, 10% unknown), in Group B (4.5% partial, 91% stable, 4.5% progression). Two year progression free survival (Group A 83%, Group B 77%). Estimated overall survival (Group A 93%, Group B 91%). Complications of surgery and IM toxicity were minimal.

Conclusion:

This trial represents the first prospective report of preop IM in GIST. This approach is feasible, requires multidisciplinary consultations, is not associated with notable postop complications.

Purpose

Imatinib mesylate is standard treatment for patients who have advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST), but not all patients benefit equally. In previous studies, GIST genotype correlated with treatment outcome and optimal imatinib dosing.

Patients and Methods

We examined the relationship between kinase genotype and treatment outcome for 428 patients enrolled on the North American phase III study SWOG S0033/CALGB 150105 and treated with either 400 mg or 800 mg daily doses of imatinib.

Results

The presence of KIT exon 11–mutant genotype (n = 283) correlated with improved treatment outcome when compared with KIT exon 9–mutant (n = 32) and wild-type (WT; n = 67) genotypes for objective response (complete response [CR]/partial response [PR], 71.7% v 44.4% [P = .007]; and 44.6% [P = .0002], respectively); time to tumor progression (TTP; median 24.7 months v 16.7 and 12.8 months, respectively); and overall survival (OS; median 60.0 months v 38.4 and 49.0 months, respectively). The survival outcomes for patients with exon 9–mutant, exon 11–mutant or WT GIST were not affected by imatinib dose. However, there was evidence of improved response rates for patients with exon 9–mutant tumors treated with imatinib 800 mg versus 400 mg (CR/PR, 67% v 17%; P = .02). Patients who had CD117-negative GIST had similar TTP but inferior OS compared with patients who had CD117-positive disease, which suggests that patients who have CD117-negative GIST may benefit from imatinib treatment. In addition, we identified novel but rare mutations of the KIT extracellular domain (exons 8 and 9).

Conclusion

We confirmed the favorable impact of KIT exon 11 genotype when compared with KIT exon 9 and wild-type genotype for patients with advanced GIST who are treated with imatinib.

The majority of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are characterized by oncogenic gain-of-function mutations in the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) c-KIT with a minority in PDGFRα. Therapy for GISTs has been revolutionized by the use of the selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib mesylate (IM). For the subset (∼10-15%) of GISTs that lack oncogenic mutations in these receptors, the genetic changes driving tumorigenesis are unknown. We recently reported that the gene encoding the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) is amplified in a subset of GISTs, and the IGF-1R protein is over-expressed in wild-type and pediatric GISTs. In this report we present a more complete picture of the involvement of components of the insulin-like growth factor-signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of GISTs. We also discuss how the IGF pathway may provide additional molecular targets for the treatment of GISTs that respond poorly to IM therapy.

SUMMARY

Background

To determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), safety, potential pharmacokinetic (PK) interactions, and effect on liver histology of trabectedin in combination with pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) for advanced malignancies.

Patients and Methods

Entry criteria for the 36 patients included normal liver function, prior doxorubicin exposure <250 mg/m2, and normal cardiac function. A 1-hour PLD (30 mg/m2) infusion was followed immediately by 1 of 6 trabectedin doses (0.4, 0.6, 0.75, 0.9, 1.1, and 1.3 mg/m2) infused over 3 hours, repeated every 21 days until evidence of complete response (CR), disease progression, or unacceptable txicity. Plasma samples were obtained to assess PK profiles.

Results

The MTD of trabectedin was 1.1 mg/m2. Drug-related grade 3 and 4 toxicities were neutropenia (31%) and elevated transaminases (31%). Six patients responded (1 CR, 5 partial responses), with an overall response rate of 16.7%, and 14 had stable disease >4 months (39%). Neither drug had its PK affected significantly by concomitant administration compared to trabectedin and PLD each given as a single agent.

Conclusion

Trabectedin combined with PLD is generally well tolerated at therapeutic doses of both drugs in pretreated patients with diverse tumor types, and appears to provide clinical benefit. These results support the need for additional studies of this combination in appropriate cancer types.

Inappropriate signaling through the EGFR and ErbB2/HER2 members of the epidermal growth factor family of receptor tyrosine kinases is well recognized as being causally linked to a variety of cancers (Hynes and Lane 2005). Consequently, monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific for these receptors have become increasingly important components of effective treatment strategies for cancer. Increasing evidence suggests that ErbB3 plays a criticial role in cancer progression and resistance to therapy. We hypothesized that co-targeting the preferred ErbB2/ErbB3 heterodimer with a bispecific single chain-Fv (bs-scFv) antibody would promote increased targeting selectivity over antibodies specific for a single tumor associated antigen (TAA). In addition, we hypothesized that targeting this important heterodimer could induce a therapeutic effect. Here we describe the construction and evaluation of ALM, an anti-ErbB3/ErbB2 bs-scFv. ALM exhibits selective targeting of tumor cells in vitro and in vivo that co-express the two target antigens over tumor cells that express only one target antigen or normal cells that express low levels of both antigens. ALM also exhibits significantly greater in vivo targeting of ErbB2“+”/ErbB3“+” tumors than derivative molecules that contain only one functional arm targeting ErbB2 or ErbB3. Binding of ALM to ErbB2“+”/ErbB3“+” mediates inhibition of tumor cell growth in vitro by effectively targeting the therapeutic anti-ErbB3 A5 scFv. This suggests both that ALM could provide the basis for an effective therapeutic agent and that engineered antibodies selected to co-target critical functional pairs of TAAs can enhance the targeting specificity and efficacy of antibody-based cancer therapeutics.

Background

Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is the most common sarcoma of the intestinal tract. The standard treatment of localized, primary GIST has been surgical resection alone. Most GISTs have a mutation in the KIT proto-oncogene, or less commonly in platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα). Imatinib mesylate is a small molecule that inhibits activation of the KIT and PDGFRα proteins and is effective in metastatic GIST. We hypothesized that adjuvant treatment with imatinib would result in improved recurrence-free survival (RFS) compared to placebo treatment following resection of localized, primary GIST.

Methods

We performed a randomized phase 3, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Eligible patients had complete gross resection of a primary GIST at least 3 cm in size that stained positive for KIT protein. Patients were randomly assigned to receive imatinib 400 mg/day or placebo daily for one year following surgical resection. Patients assigned to placebo were eligible to crossover to imatinib treatment in the event of tumor recurrence. The primary endpoint was RFS and intention to treat analysis was performed. This study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00041197.

Findings

From July 2002 to April 2007, 359 patients were randomized to imatinib and 354 to placebo. Accrual was stopped early based on the results of a planned interim analysis. Imatinib significantly prolonged RFS compared with placebo (98% vs. 83% at 1 year; overall hazard ratio 0.35; one-sided p<0.0001). Overall survival (OS) was similar (99.2% vs. 99.7% at 1 year; hazard ratio 0.66; p=0.47). Adjuvant imatinib was well-tolerated with a low rate of serious adverse events.

Interpretation

Adjuvant imatinib therapy is safe and compared to placebo treatment appears to prolong RFS following the resection of primary GIST. OS is not different at this time.