Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) binding to bacterial flagellin activates NF-κB signaling and triggers an innate immune response to the invading pathogen. To elucidate the structural basis and mechanistic implications of TLR5-flagellin recognition, we determined the crystal structure of zebrafish TLR5, as a VLR-hybrid protein, in complex with the D1/D2 fragment of Salmonella flagellin, FliC, at 2.47 Å resolution. TLR5 interacts primarily with the three helices of the FliC D1 domain using its lateral side. Two TLR5-FliC 1:1 heterodimers assemble into a 2:2 tail-to-tail signaling complex that is stabilized by quaternary contacts of the FliC D1 domain with the convex surface of the opposing TLR5. The proposed signaling mechanism is supported by structure-guided mutagenesis and deletion analysis on CBLB502, a therapeutic protein derived from FliC.

A series of five PIM2 analogues were synthesized and tested for their ability to activate primary macrophages and modulate LPS signaling. Structural changes included replacement of the fatty acid esters of the phosphatidyl moiety of PIM2 with the corresponding ether or amide. An AcPIM2 analogue possessing an ether linkage was also prepared. The synthetic methodology utilized an orthogonally protected chiral myo-inositol starting material that was conveniently prepared from myo-inositol in just two steps. Important steps in the synthetic protocols included the regio- and α-selective glycosylation of inositol O-6 and introduction of the phosphodiester utilizing phosphoramidite chemistry. Replacement of the inositol core with a glycerol moiety gave compounds described as phosphatidylglycerol dimannosides (PGM2). Biological testing of these PIM compounds indicated that the agonist activity was TLR4 dependent. An ether linkage increased agonist activity, removal of the inositol ring enhanced antagonist activity and the presence of an additional lipid chain enhanced LPS-induced cytokine production in primary macrophages. Furthermore, the interruption of the LPS-induced TLR4/MD-2 2:2 signaling complex formation by PIM2 represents a previously unidentified mechanism involved in the bioactivity of PIM molecules.

RP105–MD-1 modulates the TLR4–MD-2-mediated, innate immune response against bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The crystal structure of the bovine 1:1 RP105–MD-1 complex bound to a putative endogenous lipid at 2.9 Å resolution shares a similar overall architecture to its homologue TLR4–MD-2, but assembles into an unusual 2:2 homodimer which differs from any other known TLR-ligand assembly. The homodimer is assembled in a head-to-head orientation that juxtaposes the N-terminal leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) of the two RP105 chains, rather than the usual tail-to-tail configuration of C-terminal LRRs in ligand-activated TLR dimers, such as TLR1–2, 3 and 4. Another novel interaction is mediated by an RP105-specific Asn-linked glycan, which wedges MD-1 into the co-receptor binding concavity on RP105. This unique mode of assembly in RP105–MD-1 represents a new paradigm for TLR complexes and suggests a potential molecular mechanism for regulating LPS responses.

Summary

IL-10R2 is a shared cell surface receptor required for the activation of five class 2 cytokines (IL-10, IL-22, IL-26, IL-28, and IL-29) that play critical roles in host defense. To define the molecular mechanisms that regulate its promiscuous binding, we have determined the crystal structure of the IL-10R2 ecto-domain at 2.14Ǻ resolution. IL-10R2 residues required for binding were identified by alanine scanning and used to derive computational models of IL-10/IL-10R1/IL-10R2 and IL-22/IL-22R1/IL-10R2 ternary complexes. The models reveal a conserved binding epitope that is surrounded by two clefts that accommodate the structural and chemical diversity of the cytokines. These results provide a structural framework for interpreting IL-10R2 single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with human disease.

Epstein-Barr virus IL-10 (ebvIL-10) mimics the biological functions of cellular IL-10 including a number of immunoinhibitory activities on diverse immune cells. Characterization of ebvIL-10 and several mutants, expressed in Escherichia coli, by gel filtration chromatography and mass spectrometry revealed a +1 frameshift of ebvIL-10 expression. The frameshift is caused by the rare AGG codon at ebvIL-10 Arg159, which is preceded by the most inefficient stop signal, UGAC. The frameshift was corrected by substituting the rare AGG codon with an abundant arginine codon, CGU, or by enhancing the level of tRNA that decodes the AGG codon. As a result, ebvIL-10 expression levels increased by ~3-fold and the purity of the protein improved from 85–95% to 98–99%. The correction of the frameshift has been essential for continuing structural and biophysical studies of ebvIL-10.