Adenosine released during myocardial ischemia mediates cardioprotective preconditioning. Multivalent drugs covalently bound to nanocarriers may differ greatly in chemical and biological properties from the corresponding monomeric agents. Here, we conjugated chemically functionalized nucleosides to poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimeric polymers and investigated their effects in rat primary cardiac cell cultures and in the isolated heart. Three conjugates of A3 adenosine receptor (AR) agonists, chain-functionalized at the C2 or N6 position, were cardioprotective, with greater potency than monomeric agonist Cl-IB-MECA. Multivalent amide-linked MRS5216 was selective for A1 and A3ARs, and triazole-linked MRS5246 and MRS5539 (optionally containing fluorescent label) were A3AR-selective. The conjugates protected ischemic rat cardiomyocytes, an effect blocked by an A3AR antagonist MRS1523, and isolated hearts with significantly improved infarct size, rate of pressure product, and rate of contraction and relaxation. Thus, strategically derivatized nucleosides tethered to biocompatible polymeric carriers display enhanced cardioprotective potency via activation of A3AR on the cardiomyocyte surface.

The dedifferentiation agent ‘reversine’ (2-(4-morpholinoanilino)-N6-cyclohexyladenine 2) was found to be a moderately potent antagonist for the human A3 adenosine receptor (AR) with a Ki value 0.66 μM. This result prompted an exploration of the structure-activity relationship of related derivatives, synthesized via sequential substitution of 6-chloro-2-fluoropurine with selected nucleophiles. Optimization of substituents at these two positions identified 2-phenylamino-N6-(cyclohexyl)adenine 12, 2-phenylamino-N6-(cycloheptyl)adenine 19, and 2-phenylamino-N6-(endo-norbornyl)adenine 21 as potent A3 AR ligands with Ki values of 51, 42 and 37 nM, respectively, with 30 – 200-fold selectivity in comparison to A1 and A2A ARs. The most selective A3 AR antagonist (>200-fold) was 2-phenyloxy-N6-(cyclohexyl)adenine 22. 9-Methylation of 12, but not 19, was well tolerated in A3 AR binding. Extension of the 2-phenylamino group to 2-benzyl- and 2-(2-phenylethylamino) reduced affinity. In the series of 2-phenylamino, 2-phenyloxy, and 2-phenylthio substitutions, the order of affinity at the A3 AR was oxy ≥ amino > thio. Selected derivatives, including reversine (KB value of 466 nM in Schild analysis), competitively antagonized the functional effects of a selective A3 AR agonist, i.e. inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP production in stably transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. These results are in agreement with other studies suggesting the presence of a lipophilic pocket in the AR binding site that is filled by moderately sized cycloalkyl rings at the N6 position of both adenine and adenosine derivatives. Thus, the compound series reported herein comprise an important new series of selective A3 AR antagonists. We were unable to reproduce the dedifferentiation effect of reversine, previously reported, or to demonstrate any connection between A3 AR antagonist effects and dedifferentiation.

Activation of either the A1 or the A3 adenosine receptor (A1R or A3R, respectively) elicits delayed cardioprotection against infarction, ischemia, and hypoxia. Mitochondrial contribution to the progression of cardiomyocyte injury is well known; however, the protective effects of adenosine receptor activation in cardiac cells with a respiratory chain deficiency are poorly elucidated. The aim of our study was to further define the role of A1R and A3R activation on functional tolerance after inhibition of the terminal link of the mitochondrial respiratory chain with sodium azide, in a state of normoxia or hypoxia, compared with the effects of the mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channel opener diazoxide. Treatment with 10 mM sodium azide for 2 h in normoxia caused a considerable decrease in the total ATP level; however, activation of adenosine receptors significantly attenuated this decrease. Diazoxide (100 µM) was less effective in protection. During treatment of cultured cardiomyocytes with hypoxia in the presence of 1 mM sodium azide, the A1R agonist 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine was ineffective, whereas the A3R agonist 2-chloro-N6-iodobenzyl-5′-N-methylcarboxamidoadenosine (Cl-IB-MECA) attenuated the decrease in ATP level and prevented cell injury. Cl-IB-MECA delayed the dissipation in the mitochondrial membrane potential during hypoxia in cells impaired in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. In cells with elevated intracellular Ca2+ concentration after hypoxia and treatment with NaN3 or after application of high doses of NaN3, Cl-IB-MECA immediately decreased the elevated intracellular Ca2+ concentration toward the diastolic control level. The A1R agonist was ineffective. This may be especially important for the development of effective pharmacological agents, because mitochondrial dysfunction is a leading factor in the pathophysiological cascade of heart disease.

Cardiomyocytes express one or more subtypes of P2 receptors for extracellular nucleotides. P2 purinoceptors, which are activated by nucleotides, are classified as P2X or P2Y: P2X receptors are ligand-gated intrinsic ion channels, and P2Y receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. Extracellular pyrimidine and purine nucleotides are released from the heart during hypoxia. Although the cardioprotective effects of purines acting via purinoceptors were studied intensively, the physiological role of uracil nucleotide-responsive P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, and P2Y14 receptors is still unclear, especially in the cardiovascular system. This study revealed that uridine-5′-triphosphate (UTP) protected cultured rat cardiomyocytes during hypoxia and explored the UTP signaling pathway leading to this cardioprotection. We found that UTP, but not UDP or uridine, significantly reduced cardiomyocyte death induced by hypoxia. Incubation with UTP for 1 h, before exposure to hypoxic conditions, protected the cells 24 h later. The cardioprotective effect of UTP was reduced in the presence of the P2 antagonist suramin. In addition, UTP caused a transient increase of [Ca2+]i in cardiomyocytes. Pyridoxal-5′-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2,4-disulfonate (PPADS) or Reactive blue 2 (RB-2), other antagonists of P2 receptors, abolished the [Ca2+]i elevation caused by UTP. We used various inhibitors of the Ca2+ signaling pathway to show that UTP elevated levels of [Ca2+]i, originating from intracellular sources, via activation of phospholipase C and the IP3 receptor. Interestingly, these inhibitors of the Ca2+ signaling pathway did not prevent the immediate protective effect caused by UTP. Although mitochondrial KATP channels are involved in other preconditioning mediator pathways, the involvement of these channels in the cardioprotective effect induced by UTP was ruled out, because 5-hydroxydecanoic acid (5-HD), a specific inhibitor of these channels, did not prevent the protection.

Massive amounts of nucleotides are released during ischemia in the cardiovascular system. Although the effect of the purine nucleotide ATP has been intensively studied in myocardial infarction, the cardioprotective role of the pyrimidine nucleotide UTP is still unclear, especially in the cardiovascular system. The purpose of our study was to elucidate the protective effects of UTP receptor activation and describe the downstream cascade for the cardioprotective effect. Cultured cardiomyocytes and left anterior descending (LAD)-ligated rat hearts were pretreated with UTP and exposed to hypoxia–ischemia. In vitro experiments revealed that UTP reduced cardiomyocyte death induced by hypoxia, an effect that was diminished by suramin. UTP caused several effects that could trigger a cardioprotective response: a transient increase of [Ca2+]i, an effect that was abolished by PPADS or RB2; phosphorylation of the kinases ERK and Akt, which was abolished by U0126 and LY294002, respectively; and reduced mitochondrial calcium elevation after hypoxia. In vivo experiments revealed that UTP maintained ATP levels, improved mitochondrial activity, and reduced infarct size. In conclusion, UTP administrated before ischemia reduced infarct size and improved myocardial function. Reduction of mitochondrial calcium overload can partially explain the protective effect of UTP after hypoxic–ischemic injury.

Multivalent dendrimeric conjugates of GPCR ligands may have increased potency or selectivity in comparison to monomeric ligands, a phenomenon that was tested in a model of cytoprotection in mouse HL-1 cardiomyocytes. Quantitative RT-PCR indicated high expression levels of endogenous A1 and A2A adenosine receptors (ARs), but not of A2B and A3ARs. Activation of the heterologously expressed human A3AR in HL-1 cells by AR agonists significantly attenuated cell damage following 4 h exposure to H2O2 (750 μM) but not in untransfected cells. The A3 agonist IB-MECA (EC50 3.8 μM) and the non-selective agonist NECA (EC50 3.9 μM) protected A3 AR-transfected cells against H2O2 in a concentration-dependent manner, as determined by lactate dehydrogenase release. A generation 5.5 PAMAM (polyamidoamine) dendrimeric conjugate of a N6-chain-functionalized adenosine agonist was synthesized and its mass indicated an average of 60 amide-linked nucleoside moieties out of 256 theoretical attachment sites. It nonselectively activated the A3AR to inhibit forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation (IC50 66 nM) and, similarly, protected A3–transfected HL-1 cells from apoptosis-inducing H2O2 with greater potency (IC50 35 nM) than monomeric nucleosides. Thus, a PAMAM conjugate retained AR binding affinity and displayed greatly enhanced cardioprotective potency.

Background

An approach to use multivalent dendrimer carriers for delivery of nucleoside signaling molecules to their cell surface G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) was recently introduced.

Results

A known adenosine receptor (AR) agonist was conjugated to polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer carriers for delivery of the intact covalent conjugate to on the cell surface. Depending on the linking moiety, multivalent conjugates of the N6-chain elongated functionalized congener ADAC (N6-[4-[[[4-[[[(2-aminoethyl)amino]carbonyl]methyl]anilino]carbonyl]methyl]phenyl]-adenosine) achieved unanticipated high selectivity in binding to the cytoprotective human A3 AR, a class A GPCR. The key to this selectivity of > 100-fold in both radioreceptor binding (Ki app = 2.4 nM) and functional assays (EC50 = 1.6 nM in inhibition of adenylate cyclase) was maintaining a free amino group (secondary) in an amide-linked chain. Attachment of neutral amide-linked chains or thiourea-containing chains preserved the moderate affinity and efficacy at the A1 AR subtype, but there was no selectivity for the A3 AR. Since residual amino groups on dendrimers are associated with cytotoxicity, the unreacted terminal positions of this A3 AR-selective G2.5 dendrimer were present as carboxylate groups, which had the further benefit of increasing water-solubility. The A3 AR selective G2.5 dendrimer was also visualized binding the membrane of cells expressing the A3 receptor but did not bind cells that did not express the receptor.

Conclusion

This is the first example showing that it is feasible to modulate and even enhance the pharmacological profile of a ligand of a GPCR based on conjugation to a nanocarrier and the precise structure of the linking group, which was designed to interact with distal extracellular regions of the 7 transmembrane-spanning receptor. This ligand tool can now be used in pharmacological models of tissue rescue from ischemia and to probe the existence of A3 AR dimers.

OBJECTIVES:

Cardioprotection (delaying of irreversible damage in hypoxia or prevention of doxorubicin [DOX] toxicity) is achieved by increasing the energy supply, or decreasing the energy demand in the cell and may be regulated through adenosine (ADO) receptor (AR) signalling. The aim of this study was to define of the protective role of ADO A1R and A3R against these two different kinds of stress conditions via direct action on isolated cardiomyocytes. Effects of A1 and A3 adenosine receptors were assessed by comparing morphological-functional tolerance, cellular energy state and contribution of the mitochondrial KATP channels during development of hypoxia and DOX cytotoxicity.

METHODS:

The primary cardiac myocyte cultures were treated in a hypoxic chamber of N2 (100%) in glucose-free media. A second group of cells were treated on day 4 in culture with 0.5 to 5 μM DOX for 18 h and then incubated in drug-free growth medium for an additional 24 h or 72 h. The hypoxic and cytotoxic damage was characterized by morphological and biochemical evaluations.

RESULTS:

The A1R and A3R selective agonists (CCPA and Cl-IB-MECA, respectively) significantly decreased damage to cardiac myocytes under hypoxic conditions. Activation of both A1R and A3R together (100 nM) was more efficient in protection against hypoxia than by each one alone. The A3R agonist Cl-IB-MECA (100 nM) shows cardioprotective activity to the DOX-treated cells; however, the A1R agonist CCPA (10 nM to 10 μM) was not effective in protection against DOX toxicity.

CONCLUSION:

Activation of both the ADO receptors (A1R and A3R) leads to positive beneficial effects in cultured cardiomyocytes in 90 min hypoxia, but only A3R activation renders positive response against slowly developed DOX toxicity. Hence, the cascade of events involved in cardioprotection appears to be distinct for A1 and A3 receptor signalling.