High-resolution time-lapse imaging of meiosis in C. elegans reveals stage-specific, dynein-driven chromosome motion that accelerates homologue pairing and triggers synapsis.

Meiotic chromosome segregation requires homologue pairing, synapsis, and crossover recombination, which occur during meiotic prophase. Telomere-led chromosome motion has been observed or inferred to occur during this stage in diverse species, but its mechanism and function remain enigmatic. In Caenorhabditis elegans, special chromosome regions known as pairing centers (PCs), rather than telomeres, associate with the nuclear envelope (NE) and the microtubule cytoskeleton. In this paper, we investigate chromosome dynamics in living animals through high-resolution four-dimensional fluorescence imaging and quantitative motion analysis. We find that chromosome movement is constrained before meiosis. Upon prophase onset, constraints are relaxed, and PCs initiate saltatory, processive, dynein-dependent motions along the NE. These dramatic motions are dispensable for homologous pairing and continue until synapsis is completed. These observations are consistent with the idea that motions facilitate pairing by enhancing the search rate but that their primary function is to trigger synapsis. This quantitative analysis of chromosome dynamics in a living animal extends our understanding of the mechanisms governing faithful genome inheritance.

Summary

Sexual reproduction requires the unique cell division called meiosis, in which a diploid cell undergoes a reductional division to generate haploid gametes. A hallmark of meiotic prophase is the formation of pairwise linkages between homologous chromosomes, which later enable them to segregate from each other. In most organisms the pairing of homologous chromosomes is reinforced by synapsis, the polymerization of the synaptonemal complex (SC) between paired chromosome axes. The primary questions addressed here are: 1) how pairing is accomplished and 2) how synapsis is regulated so that it occurs selectively between homologs. We provide evidence that a connection between the chromosomes and the microtubule cytoskeleton via a bridge across the nuclear envelope is critical for both of these mechanisms. Our results indicate the existence of a mechanism that uses dynein to assess homology before licensing SC polymerization. The molecular components of this mechanism are conserved from fungi to mammals.

Crossover recombination and the formation of chiasmata normally ensure the proper segregation of homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division. zhp-3, the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog of the budding yeast ZIP3 gene, is required for crossover recombination. We show that ZHP-3 protein localization is highly dynamic. At a key transition point in meiotic prophase, the protein shifts from along the length of the synaptonemal complex (SC) to an asymmetric localization on the SC and eventually becomes restricted to foci that mark crossover recombination events. A zhp-3::gfp transgene partially complements a null mutation and reveals a separation of function; although the fusion protein can promote nearly wild-type levels of recombination, aneuploidy among the progeny is high, indicating defects in meiotic chromosome segregation. The structure of bivalents is perturbed in this mutant, suggesting that the chromosome segregation defect results from an inability to properly remodel chromosomes in response to crossovers. smo-1 mutants exhibit phenotypes similar to zhp-3::gfp mutants at higher temperatures, and smo-1; zhp-3::gfp double mutants exhibit more severe meiotic defects than either single mutant, consistent with a role for SUMO in the process of SC disassembly and bivalent differentiation. We propose that coordination of crossover recombination with SC disassembly and bivalent formation reflects a conserved role of Zip3/ZHP-3 in coupling recombination with SC morphogenesis.

Author Summary

Sexual reproduction relies on meiosis. This specialized cell division generates gametes, such as sperm and eggs, with a single copy of the genome, so that fertilization restores diploidy. In order for chromosomes to segregate correctly during meiosis, homologs usually must undergo crossing over (genetic exchange) during meiotic prophase. How crossovers are coupled to large-scale changes in chromosome structure is not well understood. Our work shows that the protein ZHP-3 localizes to crossovers late in prophase, coincident with a transition in which chromosomes initiate progressive restructuring around the crossover. We have found that a ZHP-3-GFP fusion protein is competent to promote genetic exchange but not proper segregation. Chromosomes from these mutant animals exhibit defects in this late-prophase restructuring, suggesting that alterations in chromosome architecture that typically accompany crossovers have not occurred. We propose that ZHP-3 acts at crossovers to coordinate genetic exchange with higher order changes in chromosome structure that promote proper chromosome segregation.

During meiosis, most organisms ensure that homologous chromosomes undergo at least one exchange of DNA, or crossover, to link chromosomes together and accomplish proper segregation. How each chromosome receives a minimum of one crossover is unknown. During early meiosis in Caenorhabditis elegans and many other species, chromosomes adopt a polarized organization within the nucleus, which normally disappears upon completion of homolog synapsis. Mutations that impair synapsis even between a single pair of chromosomes in C. elegans delay this nuclear reorganization. We quantified this delay by developing a classification scheme for discrete stages of meiosis. Immunofluorescence localization of RAD-51 protein revealed that delayed meiotic cells also contained persistent recombination intermediates. Through genetic analysis, we found that this cytological delay in meiotic progression requires double-strand breaks and the function of the crossover-promoting heteroduplex HIM-14 (Msh4) and MSH-5. Failure of X chromosome synapsis also resulted in impaired crossover control on autosomes, which may result from greater numbers and persistence of recombination intermediates in the delayed nuclei. We conclude that maturation of recombination events on chromosomes promotes meiotic progression, and is coupled to the regulation of crossover number and placement. Our results have broad implications for the interpretation of meiotic mutants, as we have shown that asynapsis of a single chromosome pair can exert global effects on meiotic progression and recombination frequency.

Synopsis

Meiosis is a specialized cell division and an essential component of sexual reproduction. During meiotic prophase, each chromosome must pair with its unique homologous partner and undergo crossing over (genetic exchange) to segregate properly. A major mystery is how the molecular events of meiotic recombination are coupled to the large-scale dynamics of chromosome synapsis. This work reveals a link between the large-scale regulation of chromosome organization and the distribution of crossover events on the chromosomes. In C. elegans, defects in chromosome pairing or synapsis result in an extension of a normally transient stage of meiotic prophase. This study finds that this extension is associated with dysregulation of crossovers, so that more than the usual number of crossovers occur, and their distribution is shifted along the chromosomes. These observations contribute to our understanding of crossover control, which normally ensures accurate transmission of genetic information from parent to progeny.

The BTB/POZ (BTB) domain is an approximately 120 residue sequence that is conserved at the N-terminus of many proteins in both vertebrates and invertebrates. We found that the protein encoded by a lethal allele of the Drosophila modifier of mdg4 [mod(mdg4)] gene has two mutated residues in its BTB domain. The identities of the residues at the positions of these mutations are highly conserved in the BTB domain family of proteins, and when the corresponding mutations were engineered into the BTB domain-containing GAGA protein, the activity of GAGA as a transcription activator in a transient transfection assay was severely reduced. The functional equivalence of the BTB domains was established by showing that the BTB domain of the mod(mdg4) protein can effectively substitute for that of GAGA.

We systematically generated large-scale data sets to improve genome annotation for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a key model organism. These data sets include transcriptome profiling across a developmental time course, genome-wide identification of transcription factor–binding sites, and maps of chromatin organization. From this, we created more complete and accurate gene models, including alternative splice forms and candidate noncoding RNAs. We constructed hierarchical networks of transcription factor–binding and microRNA interactions and discovered chromosomal locations bound by an unusually large number of transcription factors. Different patterns of chromatin composition and histone modification were revealed between chromosome arms and centers, with similarly prominent differences between autosomes and the X chromosome. Integrating data types, we built statistical models relating chromatin, transcription factor binding, and gene expression. Overall, our analyses ascribed putative functions to most of the conserved genome.

In most sexually reproducing organisms, the fundamental process of meiosis is implemented concurrently with two differentiation programs that occur at different rates and generate distinct cell types, sperm and oocytes. However, little is known about how the meiotic program is influenced by such contrasting developmental programs. Here we present a detailed timeline of late meiotic prophase during spermatogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans using cytological and molecular landmarks to interrelate changes in chromosome dynamics with germ cell cellularization, spindle formation, and cell cycle transitions. This analysis expands our understanding C. elegans spermatogenesis, as it identifies multiple spermatogenesis-specific features of the meiotic program and provides a framework for comparative studies. Post-pachytene chromatin of spermatocytes is distinct from that of oocytes in both composition and morphology. Strikingly, C. elegans spermatogenesis includes a previously undescribed karyosome stage, a common but poorly understood feature of meiosis in many organisms. We find that karyosome formation, in which chromosomes form a constricted mass within an intact nuclear envelope, follows desynapsis, involves a global down-regulation of transcription, and may support the sequential activation of multiple kinases that prepare spermatocytes for meiotic divisions. In spermatocytes, the presence of centrioles alters both the relative timing of meiotic spindle assembly and its ultimate structure. These microtubule differences are accompanied by differences in kinetochores, which connect microtubules to chromosomes. The sperm-specific features of meiosis revealed here illuminate how the underlying molecular machinery required for meiosis is differentially regulated in each sex.

Author Summary

Sperm and oocytes contribute equal but unique complements of DNA to each new life. Both types of cells arise from meiosis, a multi-step program during which chromosomes replicate, pair and recombine, then divide to generate haploid gametes. Simultaneously, each cell type also differentiates via distinct developmental programs. Spermatogenesis rapidly produces many small, motile sperm with highly protected chromatin, while oogenesis occurs at a slower rate to yield fewer large, immobile, nutrient-rich oocytes. We provide a detailed molecular analysis of key landmark events of spermatogenesis and identify spermatogenesis-specific features of meiosis in the model organism C. elegans. We find that, as in many meiotic programs, C. elegans spermatogenesis includes a chromosome aggregation or “karyosome” phase. This extended stage provides a period for chromosome and microtubule remodeling prior to the meiotic divisions. Our analysis identifies several gamete-specific features of the meiotic program that may contribute to the differential timing, pace, and mechanics of meiotic progression. Our findings provide a foundation for understanding how differentiation influences meiosis, which is an essential step in identifying universal features required for reproductive success in all organisms.