Objective

Genetic studies may help explain abnormalities of fat distribution in HIV-infected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy (ARV).

Methods

Subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) volume measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in leg, lower trunk, upper trunk, and arm was examined in 192 HIV-infected Caucasian men, ARV-treated from the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection (FRAM) study. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were assayed using the Illumina HumanCNV370-quad beadchip. Multivariate and univariate genome wide association analyses of the four SAT depots were implemented in PLINK software adjusted for age and ARV duration. Functional annotation analysis (FAA) using Ingenuity Systems Pathway Analysis tool (IPA) was carried out for markers with P<10-3 near known genes identified by multivariate analysis.

Results

Loci (rs10504906, rs13267998, rs921231) in or near the anion exchanger solute carrier family 26, member 7 isoform a (SLC26A7) were strongly associated with upper trunk and arm SAT (9.8*10-7≤P<7.8*10-6). Loci (rs193139, rs7523050, rs1761621) in and near a gene rich region including G-protein-signaling modulator 2 (GPSM2) and syntaxin binding protein 3 (STXBP3) were significantly associated with lower body SAT depots (9.9*10-7≤P<9.5*10-6). GPSM2 is associated with cell division and cancer while STXBP3 is associated with glucose metabolism in adipoctyes. IPA identified atherosclerosis, mitochondrial function and T-Cell mediated apoptosis as processes related to SAT volume in HIV-infected individuals (P<5*10-3).

Conclusions

Our results are limited by the small sample size and replication is needed, however this genomic scan uncovered new genes associated with metabolism and inflammatory pathways that may affect SAT volume in ARV-treated HIV-infected patients.

OBJECTIVE

Changes in body fat distribution and abnormal glucose metabolism are common in HIV-infected patients. We hypothesized that HIV-infected participants would have a higher prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) compared with control subjects.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 491 HIV-infected and 187 control participants from the second examination of the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM) underwent glucose tolerance testing (GTT). Multivariable regression was used to identify factors associated with GTT parameters.

RESULTS

The prevalence of impaired fasting glucose (IFG) (>110 mg/dL) was similar in HIV-infected and control participants (21 vs. 25%, P = 0.23). In those without IFG, the prevalence of IGT was slightly higher in HIV-infected participants compared with control subjects (13.1 vs. 8.2%, P = 0.14) and in HIV+ participants with lipoatrophy versus without (18.1 vs. 11.5%, P = 0.084). Diabetes detected by GTT was rare (HIV subjects 1.3% and control subjects 0%, P = 0.65). Mean 2-h glucose levels were 7.6 mg/dL higher in the HIV-infected participants (P = 0.012). Increased upper trunk subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and decreased leg SAT were associated with 2-h glucose and IGT in both HIV-infected and control participants. Adjusting for adipose tissue reduced the estimated effects of HIV. Exercise, alcohol use, and current tenofovir use were associated with lower 2-h glucose levels in HIV-infected participants.

CONCLUSIONS

In HIV infection, increased upper trunk SAT and decreased leg SAT are associated with higher 2-h glucose. These body fat characteristics may identify HIV-infected patients with normal fasting glucose but nonetheless at increased risk for diabetes.

Background/Aims

Reduced kidney function and albuminuria are associated with higher risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality in HIV-infected individuals. We investigated whether reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albuminuria are associated with subclinical vascular disease, as assessed by carotid intima-medial thickness (cIMT).

Methods

Cross-sectional analysis of 476 HIV-infected individuals without clinical evidence of CVD enrolled in the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection (FRAM) study, using multivariable linear regression. eGFRCys and eGFRCr were calculated from cystatin C and creatinine levels. Albuminuria was defined as a positive urine dipstick (≥1+) or urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥30 mg/g. Common and internal cIMT were measured by high-resolution B-mode ultrasound.

Results

In unadjusted analyses, eGFRCys and eGFRCr were strongly associated with common and internal cIMT. Each 10 ml/min/1.73 m2 decrease in eGFRCys and eGFRCr was associated with a 0.008 mm higher common cIMT (p = 0.003, p = 0.01) and a 0.024 and 0.029 mm higher internal cIMT (p = 0.003), respectively. These associations were eliminated after adjustment for age, gender, and race. Albuminuria showed little association with common or internal cIMT in all models.

Conclusions

In HIV-infected individuals without prior CVD, reduced kidney function and albuminuria were not independently associated with subclinical vascular disease, as assessed by cIMT. These results suggest that research should focus on searching for novel mechanisms by which kidney disease confers cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected individuals.

Background.

Skeletal muscle (SM) mass decreases with advanced age and with disease in HIV infection. It is unknown whether age-related muscle loss is accelerated in the current era of antiretroviral therapy and which factors might contribute to muscle loss among HIV-infected adults. We hypothesized that muscle mass would be lower and decline faster in HIV-infected adults than in similar-aged controls.

Methods.

Whole-body 1H-magnetic resonance imaging was used to quantify regional and total SM in 399 HIV-infected and 204 control men and women at baseline and 5 years later. Multivariable regression identified associated factors.

Results.

At baseline and Year 5, total SM was lower in HIV-infected than control men. HIV-infected women were similar to control women at both time points. After adjusting for demographics, lifestyle factors, and total adipose tissue, HIV infection was associated with lower Year 5 SM in men and higher SM in women compared with controls. Average overall 5-year change in total SM was small and age related, but rate of change was similar in HIV-infected and control men and women. CD4 count and efavirenz use in HIV-infected participants were associated with increasing SM, whereas age and stavudine use were associated with decreasing SM.

Conclusions.

Muscle mass was lower in HIV-infected men compared with controls, whereas HIV-infected women had slightly higher SM than control women after multivariable adjustment. We found evidence against substantially faster SM decline in HIV infected versus similar-aged controls. SM gain was associated with increasing CD4 count, whereas stavudine use may contribute to SM loss.

The use of protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors for the treatment of HIV infection and AIDS has been associated with multiple abnormalities in glucose and lipid metabolism. Specifically, these abnormalities include insulin resistance, increased triglycerides and increased LDL cholesterol levels. The metabolic disturbances are due to a combination of factors, including the direct effect of medications, restoration to health and HIV disease, as well as individual genetic predisposition. Of the available anti-retroviral medications, indinavir has been associated with causing the most insulin resistance and ritonavir with causing the most hypertriglyceridemia.

Background

Previous research has demonstrated an increase in carotid intima–media thickness (cIMT) in HIV-infected individuals compared to controls. However, the reason for this increased level of subclinical vascular disease is unknown.

Objective

To identify HIV-related risk factors for increased cIMT.

Methods

We evaluated the relationship between HIV-related characteristics (including markers of HIV disease severity and use of antiretroviral therapy) and cIMT measurements in the internal/bulb and common carotid regions among 538 HIV-infected participants from the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM). We used Bayesian model averaging to estimate the posterior probability of candidate HIV and non-HIV-related risk factors being true predictors of increased cIMT. Variables with a posterior probability of more than 50% were used to develop a selected regression model for each of the anatomic regions.

Results

For common cIMT, the Bayesian model selection process identified age, African-American race, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure with probability more than 95%, HDL cholesterol with probability 85% and Hispanic ethnicity with probability 51%. Among the HIV-related factors included in the analysis, only tenofovir use was selected (51% probability). In the selected model, duration of tenofovir use was associated with lower common cIMT (−0.0094 mm/year of use; 95% confidence interval: −0.0177 to −0.0010). For internal cIMT, no HIV-related risk factors were above the 50% posterior probability threshold.

Conclusion

We observed an inverse association between duration of tenofovir use and common carotid cIMT. Whether this association is causal or due to confounding by indication needs further investigation.

Background

Whether HIV viremia, particularly at low levels is associated with inflammation, increased coagulation, and all-cause mortality is unclear.

Methods

The associations of HIV RNA level with C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, interleukin (IL)-6 and mortality were evaluated in 1116 HIV-infected participants from the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection. HIV RNA level was categorized as undetectable (i.e., “target not detected”), 1–19, 20–399, 400–9999, and ≥10,000 copies/ml. Covariates included demographics, lifestyle, adipose tissue, and HIV-related factors.

Results

HIV RNA level had little association with CRP. Categories of HIV RNA below 10,000 copies/ml had similar levels of IL-6 compared with an undetectable HIV RNA level, while HIV RNA ≥10,000 copies/ml was associated with 89% higher IL-6 (p<0.001). This association was attenuated by ∼50% after adjustment for CD4+ cell count. Higher HIV RNA was associated with higher fibrinogen. Compared to an undetectable HIV RNA level, fibrinogen was 0.6%, 1.9%, 4.5%, 4.6%, and 9.4% higher across HIV RNA categories, respectively, and statistically significant at the highest level (p = 0.0002 for HIV RNA ≥10,000 copies/ml). Higher HIV RNA was associated with mortality during follow-up in unadjusted analysis, but showed little association after adjustment for CD4+ cell count and inflammation.

Conclusion

HIV RNA ≥10,000 copies/ml was associated with higher IL-6 and fibrinogen, but lower levels of viremia appeared similar, and there was little association with CRP. The relationship of HIV RNA with IL-6 was strongly affected by CD4 cell depletion. After adjustment for CD4+ cell count and inflammation, viremia did not appear to be substantially associated with mortality risk over 5 years.

Objective

To determine the association of inflammatory markers, fibrinogen and C-reactive protein (CRP), with 5-year mortality risk.

Methods

Vital status was ascertained in 922 HIV-infected participants from the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection. Multivariable logistic regression estimated odds ratios (OR) after adjustment for demographic, cardiovascular and HIV-related factors.

Results

Over a 5-year period, HIV-infected participants with fibrinogen levels in the highest tertile(>406mg/dL) had 2.6-fold higher adjusted odds of death than those with fibrinogen in the lowest tertile(<319mg/dL). Those with high CRP(>3mg/L) had 2.7-fold higher adjusted odds of death than those with CRP<1mg/L. When stratified by CD4 count category, fibrinogen (as a linear variable) remained independently associated [OR(95% confidence intervals) per 100mg/dL increase in fibrinogen: 1.93(1.57,2.37);1.43(1.14,1.79);1.43(1.14,1.81);and 1.30(1.04,1.63) for CD4 <200,200–350,>350–500, and >500cells/μL, respectively. Higher CRP also remained associated with higher odds of death overall and within each CD4 subgroup.

Conclusion

Fibrinogen and CRP are strong and independent predictors of mortality in HIV-infected adults. Our findings suggest that even in those with relatively preserved CD4 counts >500cells/μL, inflammation remains an important risk factor for mortality. Further investigation should determine whether interventions to reduce inflammation might decrease mortality risk in HIV-infected individuals.

Background

Some HIV protease inhibitors (PI), including full dose ritonavir (800 mg) and ritonavir-boosted lopinavir, acutely induce insulin resistance in the absence of HIV infection and changes in body composition. Boosting-dose ritonavir (100 to 200 mg) is the most commonly prescribed PI, yet its effects on glucose metabolism have not been described in the absence of another PI.

Methods

In this randomized, double-blind, cross-over study, a single dose of ritonavir 200 mg or placebo was given to healthy HIV-seronegative volunteers before assessment of insulin sensitivity by euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp.

Results

Boosting dose ritonavir had no effect on insulin-mediated glucose disposal (M/I, placebo: 8.59±0.83 vs. ritonavir: 8.51±0.64 mg/kg per min per μU/mL insulin, p=0.89).

Conclusion

A single boosting dose of ritonavir does not alter insulin sensitivity, suggesting lopinavir is likely responsible for the induction of insulin resistance demonstrated in prior short-term studies of lopinavir/ritonavir. There is a dose-dependent effect of ritonavir on insulin sensitivity.

Background

Compared with controls, HIV-infected persons have a greater prevalence of kidney disease as assessed by high levels of cystatin C and albuminuria, but not as assessed by creatinine level. However, the clinical importance of elevated cystatin C and albuminuria in the HIV-infected population has not been studied.

Study Design

We conducted an observational cohort study to determine the association of kidney disease (measured by albuminuria, cystatin C, and serum creatinine) with mortality.

Setting & Participants

922 HIV-infected persons enrolled in the FRAM (Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection) study.

Predictor

Serum cystatin C and serum creatinine were used to estimate glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Albuminuria was defined as a positive urine dipstick (≥1+) or a urine albumin-creatinine ratio > 30 mg/g.

Outcome

5-year mortality

Results

At baseline, reduced kidney function (eGFRSCysC <60 mL/min/1.73m2) or albuminuria was present in 28% of participants. After five years of follow-up, mortality was 48% among those with both eGFRSCysC <60 mL/min/1.73m2 and albuminuria, 23% in those with eGFRSCysC <60 mL/min/1.73m2 alone, 20% in those with albuminuria alone, and 9% in those with neither condition. After multivariable adjustment for demographics, cardiovascular risk factors, HIV-related factors, and inflammatory markers, eGFRSCysC <60 mL/min/1.73m2 and albuminuria were associated with nearly a twofold increase in mortality, whereas eGFRSCr <60 mL/min/1.73m2 did not appear to have any substantial association with mortality. Together, eGFRSCysC <60 mL/min/1.73m2 and albuminuria accounted for 17% of the population-level attributable risk for mortality.

Limitations

Vital status was unknown in 261 participants from the original cohort.

Conclusions

Kidney disease marked by albuminuria or increased cystatin C levels appears to be an important risk factor for mortality in HIV-infected individuals. A substantial proportion of this risk may be unrecognized because of the current reliance on serum creatinine to estimate kidney function in clinical practice.

Previously, we found that 4 weeks of treatment with lopinavir-ritonavir did not decrease insulin sensitivity but did increase adiponectin levels. In the present study, a single dose of lopinavir-ritonavir decreases insulin sensitivity but does not alter adiponectin levels. Insulin resistance from protease inhibitors may decrease with prolonged use; an increase in adiponectin levels may mediate this effect.

Objective

To determine the prevalence of illicit drug use and the impact on HIV treatment.

Design

Multivariable regression of cross-sectional data from 1163 HIV-infected and 294 controls from the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM).

Methods

An analysis of (1) prevalence of specific illicit drug use (ever, current), (2) being on HAART among those with an indication and (3) current HIV RNA and CD4 cell count among HAART users.

Results

Median age was 42 years, approximately 50% were non-Caucasian and 33% were women. Eighty-six percent of HIV-infected and 67% of controls reported ever using illicit drugs (P <0.0001); 28% of HIV-infected and 16% of controls reported current use (P = 0.0001). In adjusted models, current cocaine use and past heroin use were associated with not currently being on HAART. Among HAART users, those reporting past heroin use were as likely to have an undetectable HIV viral load as those who had never used heroin. Current and past cocaine use and current heroin use was associated with lower odds of undetectable HIV RNA. Past amphetamine use was associated with having an undetectable HIV. Similar results were seen for CD4 lymphocyte counts.

Conclusion

Illicit drug use in the US is common, although far fewer report current use than past use. Among HIV-infected patients, understanding of the type of illicit drugs used and whether drug use was in the past or ongoing is important, because of their differential effects on HIV treatment outcomes.

Objective

Microalbuminuria is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality. The objective of the study was to evaluate if HIV infection was an independent risk factor for microalbuminuria.

Design

Cross sectional.

Methods

The relationship between HIV infection and microalbuminuria was assessed using subjects enrolled in the study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection, which consists of HIV-positive and control men and women. Participants with proteinuria (dipstick ≥1+) were excluded.

Results

Microalbuminuria (urinary albumin/creatinine ratio, ACR>30 mg/g) was present in 11% of HIV infected, and 2% of control participants (P<0.001); a fivefold odds after multivariate adjustment (odds ratio, 5.11; 95% confidence interval, 1.97–13.31; P=0.0008). Several cardiovascular risk factors were associated with higher ACR in HIV participants: insulin resistance (HOMA>4; 32%, P<0.0001), systolic blood pressure (21%, P=0.01 for 120–140 versus <120 mmHg, and 43%, P <0.06 for >140 versus <120 mmHg), and family history of hypertension (17%, P=0.03). Higher CD4 cell count was associated with lower albumin/creatinine ratio (−24%, P=0.009 for 200–400 versus <200 cells/ml and −26%, P=0.005 for >400 versus <200 cells/ml).

Conclusion

HIV infection had a strong and independent association with microalbuminuria, the severity of which was predicted by markers of insulin resistance, hypertension, and advanced HIV infection. These associations warrant further investigation, as the increased prevalence of microalbuminuria in HIV infection may be a harbinger of future risk of cardiovascular and kidney diseases.

HIV-infected patients have metabolic abnormalities that put them at increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), including abnormalities associated with HIV infection itself, antiretroviral treatment, restoration to health, and body composition changes. The 2 major components of dyslipidemia in HIV-infected patients are hypertriglyceridemia and reduction in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (with likely altered function of HDL cholesterol); these abnormalities contribute to increased atherosclerotic risk. Adverse effects of antiretroviral drugs on lipids are not class specific but rather are associated with particular drugs. Thus, practitioners need to be cognizant of the risks of metabolic abnormalities posed by individual drugs. HIV infection increases CVD risk independent of the effects of traditional risk factors. The relative risk of CVD in HIV-infected patients has decreased in recent years with increasing use of lipid-lowering therapy. However, use of lipid-lowering therapy is complicated by numerous potential drug interactions with antiretroviral drugs that practitioners need to consider when prescribing lipid-lowering therapy. This article summarizes a presentation made by Carl Grunfeld, MD, PhD, at the International AIDS Society–USA continuing medical education program in Los Angeles in March 2010. The original presentation is available as a Webcast at www.iasusa.org.

Background

Although studies have reported a high prevalence of end-stage renal disease in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals, little is known about moderate impairments in kidney function. Cystatin C measurement may be more sensitive than creatinine for detecting impaired kidney function in persons with HIV.

Methods

We evaluated kidney function in the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM) cohort, a representative sample of 1008 HIV-infected persons and 290 controls from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study in the United States.

Results

Cystatin C level was elevated in HIV-infected individuals; the mean±SD cystatin C level was 0.92±0.22 mg/L in those infected with HIV and 0.76±0.15 mg/L in controls (P<.001). In contrast, both mean creatinine levels and estimated glomerular filtration rates appeared similar in HIV-infected individuals and controls (0.87±0.21 vs 0.85±0.19 mg/dL [to convert to micromoles per liter, multiply by 88.4] [P=.35] and 110±26 vs 106±23 mL/min/1.73 m2 [P=.06], respectively). Persons with HIV infection were more likely to have a cystatin C level greater than 1.0 mg/L (OR, 9.8; 95% confidence interval, 4.4-22.0 [P<.001]), a threshold demonstrated to be associated with increased risk for death and cardiovascular and kidney disease. Among participants with HIV, potentially modifiable risk factors for kidney disease, hypertension, and low high-density lipoprotein concentration were associated with a higher cystatin C level, as were lower CD4 lymphocyte count and coinfection with hepatitis C virus (all P<.001).

Conclusions

Individuals infected with HIV had substantially worse kidney function when measured by cystatin Clevel compared with HIV-negative controls, whereas mean creatinine levels and estimated glomerular filtration rates were similar. Cystatin C measurement could be a useful clinical tool to identify HIV-infected persons at increased risk for kidney and cardiovascular disease.

Pharmacologic doses of growth hormone (GH) reduce HIV-associated fat accumulation but may worsen glucose metabolism. We investigated the effects of a low dose of GH (1 mg per day) in HIV-infected men with fat accumulation and found that such treatment reduced total fat and increased lean body mass without significant changes in glucose tolerance or insulin sensitivity. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) levels did not change significantly for the group as a whole, although a reduction in the VAT level was seen in patients with a greater VAT level at baseline.

The Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM), initiated in 2000, investigates the prevalence and correlates of changes in fat distribution, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected men and women compared with a population-based group of control men and women. Between June 2000 and September 2002, 1,480 participants (1,183 HIV-infected persons and 297 controls) were enrolled in FRAM. Measurements taken included whole-body magnetic resonance imaging for quantification of regional fat, anthropometric measurements, central laboratory analysis of metabolites, and assessment of symptoms, sociodemographic factors, and lifestyle. Similar measurements were repeated among FRAM participants 4 years later (FRAM 2) for investigation of the progression of fat distribution changes, insulin resistance, and hyperlipidemia. In FRAM 2, which is ongoing, investigators are also determining the associations of subclinical cardiovascular disease, as measured by carotid intimal-medial wall thickness, with HIV infection, fat distribution changes, insulin resistance, and other proatherogenic changes in serum lipid levels. The demographic characteristics of HIV-infected FRAM men and women were comparable to those reported from a national random sampling of HIV-infected men and women receiving medical care in the United States. The representativeness of the FRAM sample increases its value as a resource for studies on fat distribution, metabolic changes, and atherosclerosis in HIV infection.

Background

Some HIV protease inhibitors (PIs) have been shown to induce insulin resistance in vitro but the degree to which specific PIs affect insulin sensitivity in humans is less well understood.

Methods

In two separate double-blind, randomized, cross-over studies, we assessed the effects of a single dose of ritonavir (800 mg) and amprenavir (1200 mg) on insulin sensitivity (euglycemic hyperglycemic clamp) in healthy normal volunteers.

Results

Ritonavir decreased insulin sensitivity (−15%; P=0.008 versus placebo) and non-oxidative glucose disposal (−30%; P=0.0004), whereas neither were affected by amprenavir administration.

Conclusion

Compared to previously performed studies of identical design using single doses of indinavir and lopinavir/ritonavir, a hierarchy of insulin resistance was observed with the greatest effect seen with indinavir followed by ritonavir and lopinavir/ritonavir, with little effect of amprenavir.

Objective

Complaints of dry skin in HIV-infected individuals were reported after the advent of HAART. The objective of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of dry skin and associated factors in HIV-infected and control subjects.

Design

Cross-sectional.

Methods

A total of 1026 HIV-infected subjects and 274 controls [from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study, a population-based study of cardiovascular risk assessment] in the Study of Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV infection (FRAM) had skin assessed by self-report and examination. Multivariable logistic regression identified factors associated with dry skin.

Results

Self-reported dry skin was more prevalent in HIV-infected subjects than controls. In multivariable analysis, HIV infection was associated with self-reported dry skin. In HIV-infected men, current indinavir use, CD4 cell count less than 200 cells/μl and recent opportunistic infections were associated with dry skin. Indinavir use had an elevated risk in men with CD4 cell counts of 200 cells/μl or greater but not with CD4 cell counts less than 200 cells/μl. In HIV-infected women, a CD4 cell count less than 200 cells/μl was associated with dry skin; indinavir use did not reach statistical significance but, as in men, indinavir use had an elevated risk in those with higher CD4 cell counts than in those with CD4 cell counts less than 200 cells/μl.

Conclusion

Dry skin is more common in HIV-infected individuals than controls. In HIV-infected individuals, low CD4 cell counts and indinavir use in those with higher CD4 cell counts are associated with dry skin.

Background

Therapy with HIV protease inhibitors (PI) causes insulin resistance even in the absence of HIV infection, hyperlipidemia or changes in body composition. The mechanism of the effects on insulin action is unknown. In vitro studies suggest that PI selectively and rapidly inhibit the activity of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter GLUT-4. We hypothesized that a single dose of the PI indinavir resulting in therapeutic plasma concentrations would acutely decrease insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in healthy human volunteers.

Methods

Randomized, double-blind, cross-over study comparing the effect of 1200 mg of orally administered indinavir and placebo on insulin-stimulated glucose disposal during a 180-min euglycemic, hyperinsulinemic clamp. Six healthy HIV-seronegative adult male volunteers were studied twice with 7 to 10 days between studies.

Results

There were no significant differences in baseline fasting body weight, or plasma glucose, insulin, lipid and lipoprotein levels between placebo- and indinavir-treated subjects. During steady-state (t60–180 min) insulin reached comparable levels (394 ± 13 versus 390 ± 11 pmol/l) and glucose was clamped at approximately 4.4 mmol/l under both conditions. The average maximum concentration of indinavir was 9.4 ± 2.2 μM and the 2-h area under the curve was 13.5 ± 3.1 μM · h. Insulin-stimulated glucose disposal per unit of insulin (M/I) decreased in all subjects from 14.1 ± 1.2 to 9.2 ± 0.8 mg/kg · min per μUI/ml (95% confidence interval for change, 3.7–6.1; P < 0.001) on indinavir (average decrease, 34.1 ± 9.2%). The non-oxidative component of total glucose disposal (storage) decreased from 3.9 ± 1.8 to 1.9 ± 0.9 mg/kg · min (P < 0.01). Free fatty acid levels were not significantly different at baseline and were suppressed equally with insulin administration during both studies.

Conclusions

A single dose of indinavir acutely decreases total and non-oxidative insulin-stimulated glucose disposal during a euglycemic, hyperinsulinemic clamp. Our data are compatible with the hypothesis that an acute effect of indinavir on glucose disposal in humans is mediated by a direct blockade of GLUT-4 transporters.

Background

Therapy with HIV protease inhibitors (PI) has been associated with hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and changes in body composition. It is unclear whether these adverse effects are drug related, involve an interaction with the host response to HIV or reflect changes in body composition.

Methods

Indinavir 800 mg twice daily was given to 10 HIV-seronegative healthy men to distinguish direct metabolic effects of a PI from those related to HIV infection. Fasting glucose and insulin, lipid and lipoprotein profiles, oral glucose tolerance (OGTT), insulin sensitivity by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, and body composition were measured prior to and after 4 weeks of indinavir therapy.

Results

Fasting glucose (4.9 ± 0.1 versus 5.2 ± 0.2 mmol/l; P = 0.05) insulin concentrations (61.7 ± 12.2 versus 83.9 ± 12.2 pmol/l; P < 0.05), insulin : glucose ratio (12.6 ± 1.7 versus 15.9 ± 1.9 pmol/mmol; P < 0.05) and insulin resistance index by homeostasis model assessment (1.9 ± 0.3 versus 2.8 ± 0.5; P < 0.05) all increased significantly. During OGTT, 2 h glucose (5.1 ± 0.4 versus 6.5 ± 0.6 mmol/l; P < 0.05) and insulin levels (223.1 ± 48.8 versus 390.3 ± 108.8 pmol/l; P =0.05) also increased significantly. Insulin-mediated glucose disposal decreased significantly (10.4 ± 1.4 versus 8.6 ± 1.2 mg/kg · min per µU/ml insulin; 95% confidence interval 0.6–3.0; P < 0.01). There was no significant change in lipoprotein, triglycerides or free fatty acid levels. There was a small loss of total body fat (15.8 ± 1.4 versus 15.2 ± 1.4 kg; P = 0.01) by X-ray absorptiometry without significant changes in weight, waist : hip ratio, and visceral or subcutaneous adipose tissue by computed tomography.

Conclusions

In the absence of HIV infection, treatment with indinavir for 4 weeks causes insulin resistance independent of increases in visceral adipose tissue or lipid and lipoprotein levels.

Summary

Visceral obesity is associated with insulin resistance, but the association of other regional adipose depots with insulin resistance is not understood. In HIV infection, buffalo hump (upper trunk fat) is associated, but the association of upper trunk fat with insulin resistance has not been examined in controls. To determine the independent association of adipose depots other than visceral with insulin resistance, we performed a cross-sectional analysis of controls and HIV-infected subjects in the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change in HIV Infection (FRAM) study, who had measurements of glucose, insulin, and adipose tissue volumes by whole-body magnetic resonance imaging. We studied 926 HIV-positive persons from 16 academic medical center clinics and trials units with demographic characteristics representative of US patients with HIV infection and 258 FRAM controls from the population-based Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study. We measured visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) volume in the legs, arms, lower trunk (back and abdomen), and upper trunk (back and chest) and assessed their association with the homeostasis model of assessment (HOMA) and HOMA >4 by stepwise multivariable analysis. The prevalence of HOMA >4 as a marker of insulin resistance was 28% among controls compared with 37% among HIV-infected subjects (P = 0.005). Among controls, those in the highest tertile of upper trunk SAT volume had an odds ratio (OR) of 9.0 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.4 to 34; P = 0.001) for having HOMA >4 compared with the lowest tertile, whereas in HIV-positive subjects, the OR was lower (OR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.36 to 3.19; P = 0.001). Among controls, the highest tertile of VAT volume had an OR of 12.1 (95% CI: 3.2 to 46; P = 0.0002) of having HOMA >4 compared with the lowest tertile, whereas in HIV-positive subjects, the OR was 3.12 (95% CI: 2.0 to 4.8; P < 0.0001). After adjusting for VAT and upper trunk SAT, the association of other SAT depots with HOMA >4 did not reach statistical significance. Thus, VAT and upper trunk SAT are independently associated with insulin resistance in controls and in HIV-infected persons.