The amygdala has been implicated in affective and social processing for more than a century. Animals with damage to the amygdala have altered affective and social behavior patterns, though the precise nature of these behavioral changes depends on a number of factors including lesion technique, age of the subject at the time of lesion, rearing, and housing environments. Interpretations of amygdala lesion studies are further complicated by the potentially confounded nature of affective and social stimuli (e.g., social interactions with a conspecific partner that is consistently aggressive). In the present study, we evaluated affective responding to socially and emotionally evocative video stimuli in a group of rhesus macaques that received bilateral amygdala lesions as neonates. The stimuli were produced in order to vary independently in terms of their affective and social content. The responses of the amygdala-lesioned animals were compared to a group of age-matched controls and a group of animals that had sustained bilateral hippocampus damage as neonates. As compared to control animals, amygdala-lesioned animals had blunted responding to both positive and negative stimuli, regardless of social content, but did differentiate between categories of social content. Taken together, these findings suggest that early amygdala damage permanently compromises affective processing while leaving intact the ability to distinguish between socially meaningful contexts.

The nonhuman primate entorhinal cortex is the primary interface for information flow between the neocortex and the hippocampal formation. Based on previous retrograde tracer studies, neocortical afferents to the macaque monkey entorhinal cortex originate largely in polysensory cortical association areas. However, the topographical and laminar distributions of cortical inputs to the entorhinal cortex have not yet been comprehensively described. The present study examines the regional and laminar termination of projections within the entorhinal cortex arising from different cortical areas. The study is based on a library of fifty-one 3H-amino acid injections that involve most of the afferent regions of the entorhinal cortex. The range of termination patterns was broad. Some areas, such as the medial portion of orbitofrontal area 13 and parahippocampal areas TF and TH, project widely within the entorhinal cortex. Other areas have a more focal and regionally selective termination. The lateral orbitofrontal, insular, anterior cingulate and perirhinal cortices, for example, project only to rostral levels of the entorhinal cortex. The upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus projects mainly to intermediate levels of the entorhinal cortex and the parietal and retrosplenial cortices project to caudal levels. The projections from some of these cortical regions preferentially terminate in the superficial layers (I–III) of the entorhinal cortex whereas others project more heavily to the deep layers (V–VI). Thus, some of the cortical inputs may be more influential on the cortically directed outputs of the hippocampal formation or on gating neocortical information flow into the other fields of the hippocampal formation rather than contributing to the perforant path inputs to other hippocampal fields.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are characterized by impaired language and social skills, often with restricted interests and stereotyped behaviors. A previous investigation of blood plasma from children with ASDs (mean age = 5½ years) demonstrated that 21% of samples contained autoantibodies that reacted intensely with GABAergic Golgi neurons of the cerebellum while no samples from non-sibling, typically developing children showed similar staining (Wills et al., 2009). In order to characterize the clinical features of children positive for these autoantibodies, we analyzed plasma samples from children enrolled in the Autism Phenome Project, a multidisciplinary project aimed at identifying subtypes of ASD. Plasma from male and female children (mean age = 3.2 years) was analyzed immunohistochemically for the presence of autoantibodies using histological sections of macaque monkey brain. Immunoreactivity to cerebellar Golgi neurons and other presumed interneurons was observed for some samples but there was no difference in the rate of occurrence of these autoantibodies between children with ASD and their typically developing peers. Staining of neurons, punctate profiles in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, and neuronal nuclei were also observed. Taken together, 42% of controls and subjects with ASD demonstrated immunoreactivity to some neural element. Interestingly, children whose plasma reacted to brain tissue had scores on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) that indicated increased behavioral and emotional problems. Children whose plasma was immunoreactive with neuronal cell bodies scored higher on multiple CBCL scales. These studies indicate that additional research into the genesis and prevalence of brain-directed autoantibodies is warranted.

Spatiotemporal and recognition memory are affected by aging in humans and macaque monkeys. To investigate whether these deficits are coupled with atrophy of memory-related brain regions, T1-weighted magnetic resonance images were acquired and volumes of the cerebrum, ventricles, prefrontal cortex (PFC), calcarine cortex, hippocampus, and striatum were quantified in young and aged rhesus monkeys. Subjects were tested on a spatiotemporal memory procedure (delayed response [DR]) that requires the integrity of the PFC and a medial temporal lobe-dependent recognition memory task (delayed nonmatching to sample [DNMS]). Region of interest analyses revealed that age inversely correlated with striatal, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex volumes. Hippocampal volume predicted acquisition of the DR task. Striatal volume correlated with DNMS acquisition, whereas total prefrontal gray matter, prefrontal white matter, and dlPFC volumes each predicted DNMS accuracy. A regional covariance analysis revealed that age-related volumetric changes could be captured in a distributed network that was coupled with declining performance across delays on the DNMS task. This volumetric analysis adds to growing evidence that cognitive aging in primates arises from region-specific morphometric alterations distributed across multiple memory-related brain systems, including subdivisions of the PFC.

Scientific Abstract

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and postmortem neuropathological studies have implicated the cerebellum in the pathophysiology of autism. Controversy remains, however, concerning the nature and the consistency of cerebellar alterations. MRI studies of the cross-sectional area of the vermis have found both decreases and no difference in autism groups. Volumetric analysis of the vermis, which is less prone to “plane of section artifacts” may provide a more reliable assessment of size differences but few such studies exist in the literature. Here we present the results of a volumetric analysis of the structure of the whole cerebellum and its components in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Structural MRI’s were acquired from 62 male participants (7.5 to 18.5 years-old) who met criteria for the following age-matched diagnostic groups: low functioning autism, high functioning autism, Asperger syndrome, and typically-developing children. When compared to controls, the midsagittal area of the vermis, or of subgroups of lobules, was not reduced in any of the autism groups. However, we did find that total vermis volume was decreased in the combined autism group. When examined separately, the vermis of only the high functioning autism group was significantly reduced compared to typically-developing controls. Neither IQ nor age predicted the size of the vermis within the autism groups. There were no differences in the volume of individual vermal lobules or cerebellar hemispheres. These findings are discussed in relation to the pathology of autism and to the fairly common alterations of vermal morphology in various neurodevelopmental disorders.

Although the orbitofrontal cortex has been implicated in important aspects of social behavior, few studies have evaluated semi-naturalistic social behavior in nonhuman primates after discrete lesions of this cortical area. In the present report, we evaluated the behavior of adult rhesus monkeys during dyadic social interactions with novel animals following discrete lesions of the orbitofrontal cortex. In a constrained condition, in which animals could engage in only restricted social behaviors, there were no significant differences in social behavior between the lesion group and the sham-operated control group. When the experimental animals could freely interact with partner animals, however, lesioned animals differed from control animals in terms of social interest and fear-related behaviors. These alterations were contingent on the partner with which they interacted. The lesioned animals, when compared to the control animals, had a significantly greater propensity to approach some but not all of their social partners. They also grimaced more towards the partner animal that they did not approach. Behavioral alterations were more apparent during the initial interactions between animals. We discuss these findings in relation to the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in context dependent modulation of social behavior.

The amygdala, perhaps more than any other brain region, has been implicated in numerous neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. It is part of a system initially evolved to detect dangers in the environment and modulate subsequent responses, which can profoundly influence human behavior. If its threshold is set too low, normally benign aspects of the environment are perceived as dangers, interactions are limited, and anxiety may arise. If set too high, risk taking increases and inappropriate sociality may occur. Given that many neurodevelopmental disorders involve too little or too much anxiety or too little of too much social interaction, it is not surprising that the amygdala has been implicated in many of them. In this chapter, we begin by providing a brief overview of the phylogeny, ontogeny, and function of the amygdala and then appraise data from neurodevelopmental disorders which suggest amygdala dysregulation. We focus on neurodevelopmental disorders where there is evidence of amygdala dysregulation from postmortem studies, structural MRI analyses or functional MRI. However, the results are often disparate and it is not totally clear whether this is due to inherent heterogeneity or differences in methodology. Nonetheless, the amygdala is a common site for neuropathology in neurodevelopmental disorders and is therefore a potential target for therapeutics to alleviate associated symptoms.

We have carried out a detailed analysis of the intrinsic connectivity of the Macaca fascicularis monkey hippocampal formation. Here we report findings on the topographical organization of the major connections of the dentate gyrus. Localized anterograde tracer injections were made at various rostrocaudal levels of the dentate gyrus and we investigated the three-dimensional organization of the mossy fibers, the associational projection, and the local projections. The mossy fibers travel throughout the transverse extent of CA3 at the level of the cells of origin. Once the mossy fibers reach the distal portion of CA3, they change course and travel for 3–5 mm rostrally. The associational projection, originating from cells in the polymorphic layer, terminates in the inner third of the molecular layer. The associational projection, while modest at the level of origin, travels both rostrally and caudally from the injection site for as much as 80 percent of the rostrocaudal extent of the dentate gyrus. The caudally directed projection is typically more extensive and denser than the rostrally directed projection. Cells in the polymorphic layer originate local projections that terminate in the outer two-thirds of the molecular layer. These projections are densest at the level of the cells of origin, but also extend several millimeters rostrocaudally. Overall, the topographical organization of the intrinsic connections of the monkey dentate gyrus is largely similar to that of the rat. Such extensive longitudinal connections have the potential for integrating information across much of the rostrocaudal extent of the dentate gyrus.

Across a variety of species, the amygdala appears to play a key role in the detection and avoidance of potential dangers (e.g., unfamiliar social partners, novel objects or contexts, potential predators, etc.). For many species, seeking out appropriate food sources and avoiding novel, distasteful or potentially tainted food is also a daily concern. Amygdala damage in nonhuman primates has been linked to increased willingness to select unfamiliar or unpalatable foods, as well as inedible items that intact animals typically reject. However, such findings have not always been consistent and have typically been observed in relatively restrictive, laboratory-based testing contexts. We evaluated the food choices of six adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with bilateral, neurotoxic amygdala lesions and six age- and experienced-matched unoperated control animals. Each animal was able to forage freely in a large enclosure stocked with five preferred and five nonpreferred foods that changed locations each day. While both groups quickly selected palatable foods, monkeys with amygdala lesions consistently selected unpalatable foods that the unoperated control animals generally avoided. Even after repeated presentations of the unpalatable foods, the amygdala-lesioned monkeys failed to change their initial pattern of diminished avoidance. These results are consistent with a general role for the amygdala in danger detection and prevention of harm in the presence of novel or noxious stimuli, regardless of whether such stimuli are conspecifics, predators, objects or foods.

Pathological changes in neuronal density in the amygdaloid complex have been associated with various neurological disorders. However, due to variable shrinkage during tissue processing, the only way to unambiguously determine changes in neuron number is to estimate absolute counts, rather than neuronal density. As the first stage in evaluating potential neuropathology of the amygdala in autism, the total number of neurons was estimated in the control human amygdaloid complex using stereological sampling. The intact amygdaloid complex from one hemisphere of ten brains was frozen and sectioned. One 100 μm section was selected every 500 μm and stained by standard Nissl method. The entire amygdaloid complex was outlined then further partitioned into five reliably defined subdivisions: 1. lateral nucleus, 2. basal nucleus, 3. accessory basal nucleus, 4. central nucleus, 5. remaining nuclei (including anterior cortical, anterior amygdaloid area, periamygdaloid cortex, medial, posterior cortical, nucleus of the lateral olfactory tract, amygdalohippocampal area, and intercalated nuclei). The number of neurons was measured using an optical fractionator with Stereoinvestigator software. The mean number of neurons (×106) for each region was: lateral nucleus: 4.00, basal nucleus: 3.24, accessory basal nucleus: 1.28, central nucleus: 0.36, remaining nuclei: 3.33, total amygdaloid complex: 12.21. The stereological assessment of neuron number in the human amygdala provides an essential baseline for comparison of patient populations, such as autism, in which the amygdala may develop abnormally. To facilitate these types of analyses, this paper provides detailed anatomical description of the methods used to define subdivisions of the human amygdaloid complex.

The primate amygdaloid complex projects to a number of visual cortices, including area V1, primary visual cortex, and area TE, a higher order unimodal visual area involved in object recognition. We investigated the synaptic organization of these projections by injecting anterograde tracers into the amygdaloid complex of Macaca fascicularis monkeys and examining labeled boutons in areas TE and V1 using the electron microscope. The 256 boutons examined in area TE formed 263 synapses. Two hundred twenty-three (84%) of these were asymmetric synapses onto dendritic spines and 40 (15%) were asymmetric synapses onto dendritic shafts. Nine boutons (3.5%) formed double asymmetric synapses, generally on dendritic spines, and 2 (1%) of the boutons did not form a synapse. The 200 boutons examined in area V1 formed 211 synapses. One hundred eighty-nine (90%) were asymmetric synapses onto dendritic spines and 22 (10%) were asymmetric synapses onto dendritic shafts. Eleven boutons (5.5%) formed double synapses, usually with dendritic spines. We conclude from these observations that the amygdaloid complex provides an excitatory input to areas TE and V1 that primarily influences spiny, probably pyramidal, neurons in these cortices.

The sophisticated analysis of gestures and vocalizations, including assessment of their emotional valence, helps group-living primates efficiently navigate their social environment. Deficits in social information processing and emotion regulation are important components of many human psychiatric illnesses, such as autism, schizophrenia and social anxiety disorder. Analyzing the neurobiology of social information processing and emotion regulation requires a multidisciplinary approach that benefits from comparative studies of humans and animal models. However, many questions remain regarding the relationship between visual attention and arousal while processing social stimuli. Using noninvasive infrared eye-tracking methods, we measured the visual social attention and physiological arousal (pupil diameter) of adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) as they watched social and nonsocial videos. We found that social videos, as compared to nonsocial videos, captured more visual attention, especially if the social signals depicted in the videos were directed towards the subject. Subject-directed social cues and nonsocial nature documentary footage, compared to videos showing conspecifics engaging in naturalistic social interactions, generated larger pupil diameters (indicating heightened sympathetic arousal). These findings indicate that rhesus monkeys will actively engage in watching videos of various kinds. Moreover, infrared eye tracking technology provides a mechanism for sensitively gauging the social interest of presented stimuli. Adult male rhesus monkeys' visual attention and physiological arousal do not always trend in the same direction, and are likely influenced by the content and novelty of a particular visual stimulus. This experiment creates a strong foundation for future experiments that will examine the neural network responsible for social information processing in nonhuman primates. Such studies may provide valuable information relevant to interpreting the neural deficits underlying human psychiatric illnesses such as autism, schizophrenia and social anxiety disorder.

Background

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social behavior, communication difficulties and the occurrence of repetitive or stereotyped behaviors. There has been substantial evidence for dysregulation of the immune system in autism.

Methods

We evaluated differences in the number and phenotype of circulating blood cells in young children with autism (n = 70) compared with age-matched controls (n = 35). Children with a confirmed diagnosis of autism (4–6 years of age) were further subdivided into low (IQ<68, n = 35) or high functioning (IQ≥68, n = 35) groups. Age- and gender-matched typically developing children constituted the control group. Six hundred and forty four primary and secondary variables, including cell counts and the abundance of cell surface antigens, were assessed using microvolume laser scanning cytometry.

Results

There were multiple differences in immune cell populations between the autism and control groups. The absolute number of B cells per volume of blood was over 20% higher for children with autism and the absolute number of NK cells was about 40% higher. Neither of these variables showed significant difference between the low and high functioning autism groups. While the absolute number of T cells was not different across groups, a number of cellular activation markers, including HLA-DR and CD26 on T cells, and CD38 on B cells, were significantly higher in the autism group compared to controls.

Conclusions

These results support previous findings that immune dysfunction may occur in some children with autism. Further evaluation of the nature of the dysfunction and how it may play a role in the etiology of autism or in facets of autism neuropathology and/or behavior are needed.

Background

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication, together with the presence of repetitive behaviors or a limited repertoire of activities and interests. The causes of autism are currently unclear. In a previous study, we determined that 21% of children with autism have plasma autoantibodies that are immunoreactive with a population of neurons in the cerebellum that appear to be Golgi cells, which are GABAergic interneurons.

Methods

We have extended this analysis by examining plasma immunoreactivity in the remainder of the brain. To determine cell specificity, double-labeling studies that included one of the calcium-binding proteins that are commonly colocalized in GABAergic neurons (calbindin, parvalbumin or calretinin) were also carried out to determine which GABAergic neurons are immunoreactive. Coronal sections through the rostrocaudal extent of the macaque monkey brain were reacted with plasma from each of seven individuals with autism who had previously demonstrated positive Golgi cell staining, as well as six negative controls. In addition, brain sections from adult male mice were similarly examined.

Results

In each case, specific staining was observed for neurons that had the morphological appearance of interneurons. By double-labeling sections with plasma and with antibodies directed against γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), we determined that all autoantibody-positive neurons were GABAergic. However, not all GABAergic neurons were autoantibody-positive. Calbindin was colabeled in several of the autoantibody-labeled cells, while parvalbumin colabeling was less frequently observed. Autoantibody-positive cells rarely expressed calretinin. Sections from the mouse brain processed similarly to the primate sections also demonstrated immunoreactivity to interneurons distributed throughout the neocortex and many subcortical regions. Some cell populations stained in the primate (such as the Golgi neurons in the cerebellum) were not as robustly immunoreactive in the mouse brain.

Conclusions

These results suggest that the earlier report of autoantibody immunoreactivity to specific cells in the cerebellum extend to other regions of the brain. Further, these findings confirm the autoantibody-targeted cells to be a subpopulation of GABAergic interneurons. The potential impact of these autoantibodies on GABAergic disruption with respect to the etiology of autism is discussed herein.

The dentate gyrus is one of only two regions of the mammalian brain where substantial neurogenesis occurs postnatally. However, detailed quantitative information about the postnatal structural maturation of the primate dentate gyrus is meager. We performed design-based, stereological studies of neuron number and size, and volume of the dentate gyrus layers in rhesus macaque monkeys (Macaca mulatta) of different postnatal ages. We found that about 40% of the total number of granule cells observed in mature 5–10-year-old macaque monkeys are added to the granule cell layer postnatally; 25% of these neurons are added within the first three postnatal months. Accordingly, cell proliferation and neurogenesis within the dentate gyrus peak within the first three months after birth and remain at an intermediate level between three months and at least one year of age. Although granule cell bodies undergo their largest increase in size during the first year of life, cell size and the volume of the three layers of the dentate gyrus (i.e., the molecular, granule cell and polymorphic layers) continue to increase beyond one year of age. Moreover, the different layers of the dentate gyrus exhibit distinct volumetric changes during postnatal development. Finally, we observe significant levels of cell proliferation, neurogenesis and cell death in the context of an overall stable number of granule cells in mature 5–10-year-old monkeys. These data identify an extended developmental period during which neurogenesis might be modulated to significantly impact the structure and function of the dentate gyrus in adulthood.

Met receptor tyrosine kinase signaling regulates the growth and development of axons and may contribute to the wiring of cortical and limbic circuits in the rodent forebrain. Whether the orthologous MET receptor functions similarly in the developing primate forebrain is not known but is of considerable interest considering the association of variant MET alleles with social and communication phenotypes in autism. To begin addressing this question, we compared Met/MET protein expression in the developing mouse and rhesus macaque forebrain. There was a strong temporal conservation of expression during the time of rapid axon development and the onset of robust synapse formation. Expression patterns of Met/MET in limbic-related structures were almost identical between species. In marked contrast, there was highly divergent expression in the neocortex. In mouse, Met was broadly distributed throughout neocortex. In the macaque, robust MET expression was largely restricted to the posterior cingulate, inferior temporal, posterior parietal, and visual cortices, including face processing regions. The pattern is consistent with the importance of vision in the social repertoire of the primate. Collectively, these data suggest a conserved developmental function of the MET receptor in wiring together limbic and neocortical circuits that facilitate species-appropriate responses, including social behavior.

Although the amygdala has been repeatedly implicated in normal primate social behavior, great variability exists in the specific social and nonsocial behavioral changes observed after bilateral amygdala lesions in nonhuman primates. One plausible explanation pertains to differences in social context. To investigate this idea, we measured the social behavior of amygdala-lesioned and unoperated rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in two contexts. Animals interacted in four-member social groups over 32 test days. These animals were previously assessed in pairs (Emery et al., 2001), and were, therefore, familiar with each other at the beginning of this study. Across the two contexts, amygdala lesions produced a highly consistent pattern of social behavior. Operated animals engaged in more affiliative social interactions with control group partners than did control animals. In the course of their interactions, amygdala-lesioned animals also displayed an earlier decrease in nervous and fearful personality qualities than controls. The increased exploration and sexual behavior recorded for amygdala-lesioned animals in pairs was not found in the four-member groups. We conclude that the amygdala contributes to social inhibition and this function transcends various social contexts.

Background

In a previous study (1), we found that rhesus monkeys prepared with bilateral lesions of the amygdala failed to acquire fear-potentiated startle to a visual cue. However, a second group of monkeys, that received the lesion after training, successfully demonstrated fear-potentiated startle learned prior to the lesion.

Methods

In the current experiment, the eight monkeys used in the second part of the original study (1), four of whom had bilateral amygdala lesions and their four controls, were trained using an auditory cue and tested in the fear-potentiated startle paradigm. This test was performed to determine whether they could acquire fear-potentiated startle to a new cue.

Results

Monkeys with essentially complete damage to the amygdala (based on histological analysis), who had retained and expressed fear-potentiated startle to a visual cue learned before the lesion (1), failed to acquire fear-potentiated startle to an auditory cue, when training occurred after the lesion.

Conclusions

The results suggest that while the non-human primate amygdala is essential for the initial acquisition of fear conditioning, it does not appear to be necessary for the memory and expression of conditioned fear. These findings are discussed in relation to a network of connections between the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex that may subserve different component processes of fear conditioning.

Comparative studies of the structural organization of the brain are fundamental to our understanding of human brain function. However, whereas brains of experimental animals are fixed by perfusion of a fixative through the vasculature, human or ape brains are fixed by immersion after varying postmortem intervals. Although differential treatments might affect the fundamental characteristics of the tissue, this question has not been evaluated empirically in primate brains. Monkey brains were either perfused, or acquired after varying postmortem intervals before immersion-fixation in 4% paraformaldehyde. We found that the fixation method affected the neuroanatomical characteristics of the monkey hippocampal formation. Soma size was smaller in Nissl-stained, immersion-fixed tissue, although overall brain volume was larger, as compared to perfusion-fixed tissue. Non-phosphorylated high-molecular-weight neurofilament immunoreactivity was lower in CA3 pyramidal neurons, dentate mossy cells and the entorhinal cortex, whereas it was higher in the mossy fiber pathway in immersion-fixed tissue. Serotonin-immunoreactive fibers were well-stained in perfused tissue but were undetectable in immersion-fixed tissue. Although regional immunoreactivity patterns for calcium-binding proteins were not affected, intracellular staining degraded with increasing postmortem intervals. Somatostatin-immunoreactive clusters of large axonal varicosities, previously reported only in humans, were observed in immersion-fixed monkey tissue. In addition, calretinin-immunoreactive multipolar neurons, previously observed only in rodents, were found in the rostral dentate gyrus in both perfused and immersion-fixed brains. In conclusion, comparative studies of the brain must evaluate the effects of fixation on the staining pattern of each marker in every structure of interest before drawing conclusions about species differences.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are a group of heterogeneous, behaviorally defined disorders characterized by disturbances in social interaction and communication, often with repetitive and stereotyped behavior. Previous studies have described the presence of antibodies to various neural proteins in autistic individuals as well as post-mortem evidence of neuropathology in the cerebellum. We examined plasma from children with ASD, as well as age-matched typically developing controls, for antibodies directed against human cerebellar protein extracts using western blot analysis. In addition, the presence of cerebellar specific antibodies was assessed by immunohistochemical staining of sections from Macaca fascicularis monkey cerebellum. Western blot analysis revealed that 13/63 (21%) of subjects with ASD possessed antibodies that demonstrated specific reactivity to a cerebellar protein with an apparent molecular weight of approximately 52kD compared with only 1/63 (2%) of the typically developing controls (p=0.0010). Intense immunoreactivity, to what was determined morphologically to be the Golgi cell of the cerebellum, was noted for 7/34 (21%) of subjects with ASD, compared with 0/23 of the typically developing controls. Furthermore, there was a strong association between the presence of antibodies reactive to the 52 kDa protein by western blot with positive immunohistochemical staining of cerebellar Golgi cells in the ASD group (r= 0.76; p=0.001) but not controls. These studies suggest that when compared with age-matched typically developing controls, children with ASD exhibit a differential antibody response to specific cells located in the cerebellum and this response may be associated with a protein of approximately 52 kDa.

Longitudinal analysis of animals with neonatal brain lesions enables the evaluation of behavioral changes during multiple stages of development. Interpretation of such changes, however, carries the caveat that permanent neural injury also yields morphological and neurochemical reorganization elsewhere in the brain that may lead either to functional compensation or to exacerbation of behavioral alterations. We have measured the long-term effects of selective neonatal brain damage on resting cerebral glucose metabolism in nonhuman primates. Sixteen rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) received neurotoxic lesions of either the amygdala (n = 8) or hippocampus (n = 8) when they were 2-weeks-old. Four years later, these animals, along with age- and experience-matched sham-operated control animals (n = 8), were studied with high-resolution positron emission tomography (microPET) and 2-deoxy-2[18F]fluoro-D-glucose ([18F]FDG) to detect areas of altered metabolism. The groups were compared using an anatomically-based region of interest analysis. Relative to controls, amygdala-lesioned animals displayed hypometabolism in three frontal lobe regions, as well as in the neostriatum and hippocampus. Hypermetabolism was also evident in the cerebellum of amygdala-lesioned animals. Hippocampal-lesioned animals only showed hypometabolism in the retrosplenial cortex. These results indicate that neonatal amygdala and hippocampus lesions induce very different patterns of long-lasting metabolic changes in distant brain regions. These observations raise the possibility that behavioral alterations in animals with neonatal lesions may be due to the intended damage, to consequent brain reorganization or to a combination of both factors.

The dentate gyrus is a simple cortical region that is an integral portion of the larger functional brain system called the hippocampal formation. In this review, the fundamental neuroanatomical organization of the dentate gyrus is described, including principal cell types and their connectivity, and a summary of the major extrinsic inputs of the dentate gyrus is provided. Together, this information provides essential information that can serve as an introduction to the dentate gyrus — a “dentate gyrus for dummies.”

This study examined the relationship between onset status and current functioning using a recently proposed onset classification system in 272 young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were classified into one of the following groups, based on parent report using the Autism Diagnostic Interview – Revised: Early Onset (symptoms by 12 months, no loss), Delay+Regression (symptoms by 12 months plus loss), Plateau (no early symptoms or loss), and Regression (no early symptoms, followed by loss). Findings indicate that current functioning does not differ according to onset pattern, calling into question the use of onset categorizations for prognostic purposes in children with ASD.