(See the editorial commentary by Bagni and Whitby, on pages 873–4.)

Background. Candidemia is a severe invasive fungal infection with high mortality. Recognition of Candida species is mediated through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs). This study assessed whether genetic variation in TLR signaling influences susceptibility to candidemia.

Methods. Thirteen mostly nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding TLRs and signaling adaptors MyD88 and Mal/TIRAP were genotyped in 338 patients (237 white, 93 African American, 8 other race) with candidemia and 351 noninfected controls (263 white, 88 African American). The SNPs significant in univariate analysis were further analyzed with multivariable logistic regression to determine association with clinical outcomes. Functional consequences of these polymorphisms were assessed via in vitro stimulation assays.

Results. Analyses of TLR SNPs revealed that 3 TLR1 SNPs (R80T, S248N, I602S) were significantly associated with candidemia susceptibility in whites. This association was not found in African Americans, likely due to lower power in this smaller study population. Furthermore, these TLR1 polymorphisms displayed impaired cytokine release by primary monocytes. No associations with susceptibility to candidemia were observed for SNPs in TLR2, TLR4, TLR6, TLR9, MyD88, or TIRAP.

Conclusions. Nonsynonymous SNPs in TLR1 are associated with impaired TLR1 function, decreased cytokine responses, and predisposition to candidemia in whites.

Background. Candidemia is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients or patients undergoing invasive treatments. Dectin-1 is the main β-glucan receptor, and patients with a complete deficiency of either dectin-1 or its adaptor molecule CARD9 display persistent mucosal infections with Candida albicans. The role of genetic variation of DECTIN-1 and CARD9 genes on the susceptibility to candidemia is unknown.

Methods. We assessed whether genetic variation in the genes encoding dectin-1 and CARD9 influence the susceptibility to candidemia and/or the clinical course of the infection in a large cohort of American and Dutch candidemia patients (n = 331) and noninfected matched controls (n = 351). Furthermore, functional studies have been performed to assess the effect of the DECTIN-1 and CARD9 genetic variants on cytokine production in vitro and in vivo in the infected patients.

Results. No significant association between the single-nucleotide polymorphisms DECTIN-1 Y238X and CARD9 S12N and the prevalence of candidemia was found, despite the association of the DECTIN-1 238X allele with impaired in vitro and in vivo cytokine production.

Conclusions. Whereas the dectin-1/CARD9 signaling pathway is nonredundant in mucosal immunity to C. albicans, a partial deficiency of β-glucan recognition has a minor impact on susceptibility to candidemia.

Background

The cognitive profile of early onset Parkinson’s disease (EOPD) has not been clearly defined. Mutations in the parkin gene are the most common genetic risk factor for EOPD and may offer information about the neuropsychological pattern of performance in both symptomatic and asymptomatic mutation carriers.

Methods

EOPD probands and their first-degree relatives who did not have Parkinson’s disease (PD) were genotyped for mutations in the parkin gene and administered a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. Performance was compared between EOPD probands with (N=43) and without (N=52) parkin mutations. The same neuropsychological battery was administered to 217 first-degree relatives to assess neuropsychological function in individuals who carry parkin mutations but do not have PD.

Results

No significant differences in neuropsychological test performance were found between parkin carrier and non-carrier probands. Performance also did not differ between EOPD non-carriers and carrier subgroups (i.e. heterozygotes, compound heterozygotes/homozygotes). Similarly, no differences were found among unaffected family members across genotypes. Mean neuropsychological test performance was within normal range in all probands and relatives.

Conclusions

Carriers of parkin mutations, whether or not they have PD, do not perform differently on neuropsychological measures as compared to non-carriers. The cognitive functioning of parkin carriers over time warrants further study.

Exposure to Staphylococcus aureus has a variety of outcomes, from asymptomatic colonization to fatal infection. Strong evidence suggests that host genetics play an important role in susceptibility, but the specific host genetic factors involved are not known. The availability of genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data for inbred Mus musculus strains means that haplotype association mapping can be used to identify candidate susceptibility genes. We applied haplotype association mapping to Perlegen SNP data and kidney bacterial counts from Staphylococcus aureus-infected mice from 13 inbred strains and detected an associated block on chromosome 7. Strong experimental evidence supports the result: a separate study demonstrated the presence of a susceptibility locus on chromosome 7 using consomic mice. The associated block contains no genes, but lies within the gene cluster of the 26-member extended kallikrein gene family, whose members have well-recognized roles in the generation of antimicrobial peptides and the regulation of inflammation. Efficient mixed-model association (EMMA) testing of all SNPs with two alleles and located within the gene cluster boundaries finds two significant associations: one of the three polymorphisms defining the associated block and one in the gene closest to the block, Klk1b11. In addition, we find that 7 of the 26 kallikrein genes are differentially expressed between susceptible and resistant mice, including the Klk1b11 gene. These genes represent a promising set of candidate genes influencing susceptibility to Staphylococcus aureus.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) on the spatial distribution of the genetic expression of key elements involved in angiogenesis, hypoxia, cellular metabolism, and apoptosis in LHBETATAG retinal tumors.

Methods

The right eye of each LHBETATAG transgenic mouse (n = 24) was treated with either two or six subconjunctival injections of 2-DG (500 mg/kg) or saline control at 16 weeks of age. A gene expression array analysis was performed on five different intratumoral regions (apex, center, base, anterior-lateral, and posterior-lateral) using Affymetrix GeneChip Mouse Gene 1.0 ST arrays. To test for treatment effects of each probe within each region, a two-way analysis of variance was used.

Results

Significant differences between treatment groups (ie, 0, 2, and 6 injections) were found as well as differences among the five retinal tumor regions evaluated (P < 0.01). More than 100 genes were observed to be dysregulated by ≥2-fold difference in expression between the three treatment groups, and their dysregulation varied across the five regions assayed. Several genes involved in pathways important for tumor cell growth (ie, angiogenesis, hypoxia, cellular metabolism, and apoptosis) were identified.

Conclusions

2-DG was found to significantly alter the gene expression in LHBETATAG retinal tumor cells according to their location within the tumor as well as the treatment schedule. 2-DG’s effects on genetic expression found here correlate with previous reported results on varied processes involved in its in vitro and in vivo activity in inhibiting tumor cell growth.

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) genes (NOS1, NOS2A, and NOS3) may create excess nitric oxide that contributes to neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease (PD). NOS genes might also interact with one another or with environmental factors in PD. Coding and tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (27 NOS1, 18 NOS2A, and 5 NOS3 SNPs) were genotyped in families with PD (1,065 cases and 1,180 relative and other controls) and were tested for allelic associations with PD using the association in the presence of linkage test and the pedigree disequilibrium test (PDT), allelic associations with age-at-onset (AAO) using the quantitative transmission disequilibrium test, and interactions using the multifactor dimensionality reduction-PDT. Gene-environment interactions involving cigarette smoking, caffeine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and pesticides were examined using generalized estimating equations in participants with environmental data available. Significant associations with PD were detected for the NOS1 SNPs rs3782218, rs11068447, rs7295972, rs2293052, rs12829185, rs1047735, rs3741475, and rs2682826 (range of p=0.00083–0.046) and the NOS2A SNPs rs2072324, rs944725, rs12944039, rs2248814, rs2297516, rs1060826, and rs2255929 (range of p=0.0000040–0.047) in earlier-onset families with sporadic PD, and some SNPs were also associated with earlier AAO. There was no compelling statistical evidence for gene-gene interactions. However, of the significantly associated SNPs, interactions were found between pesticides and the NOS1 SNPs rs12829185, rs1047735, and rs2682826 (range of p=0.012–0.034) and between smoking and the NOS2A SNPs rs2248814 (p=0.021) and rs1060826 (p=0.013). These data implicate NOS1 and NOS2A as genetic risk factors for PD and demonstrate that their interactions with established environmental factors may modulate the environmental effects.

Summary

Vitamin D and vitamin D receptor (VDR) have been postulated as environmental and genetic factors in neurodegeneration disorders including multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer disease (AD), and recently Parkinson disease (PD). Given the sparse data on PD and VDR, we conducted a two-stage study to evaluate the genetic effects of VDR in PD. In the discovery stage, 30 tagSNPs in VDR were tested for association with PD risk as a discrete trait and age-at-onset of PD as a quantitative trait in 770 Caucasian PD families. In the validation stage, 18 VDR SNPs were tested in an independent Caucasian cohort (267 cases and 267 controls) constructed from a genome-wide association study (GWAS). In the discovery dataset, SNPs in the 5′ end of VDR were associated with both risk and age-at-onset with more significant evidence of association with age-at-onset (nominal p=0.0008 for the most significant SNPs). These SNPs were also associated with AD in a recent GWAS. In the validation dataset, SNPs in the 3′ end of VDR were associated with age-at-onset (nominal p=0.003 for the most significant SNPs but not risk. The most significant 3′end SNP has been be associated with both MS and AD. Our findings suggest VDR as a potential susceptibility gene and support an essential role of vitamin D in PD.

Through extensive linkage and association analyses in multiple independent datasets, this study identified CACNG3 as the most likely AMD susceptibility gene on 16p12.

Purpose.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex disorder of the retina, characterized by drusen, geographic atrophy, and choroidal neovascularization. Cigarette smoking and the genetic variants CFH Y402H, ARMS2 A69S, CFB R32Q, and C3 R102G have been strongly and consistently associated with AMD. Multiple linkage studies have found evidence suggestive of another AMD locus on chromosome 16p12 but the gene responsible has yet to be identified.

Methods.

In the initial phase of the study, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across chromosome 16 were examined for linkage and/or association in 575 Caucasian individuals from 148 multiplex and 77 singleton families. Additional variants were tested in an independent dataset of unrelated cases and controls. According to these results, in combination with gene expression data and biological knowledge, five genes were selected for further study: CACNG3, HS3ST4, IL4R, Q7Z6F8, and ITGAM.

Results.

After genotyping additional tagging SNPs across each gene, the strongest evidence for linkage and association was found within CACNG3 (rs757200 nonparametric LOD* = 3.3, APL (association in the presence of linkage) P = 0.06, and rs2238498 MQLS (modified quasi-likelihood score) P = 0.006 in the families; rs2283550 P = 1.3 × 10−6, and rs4787924 P = 0.002 in the case–control dataset). After adjusting for known AMD risk factors, rs2283550 remained strongly associated (P = 2.4 × 10−4). Furthermore, the association signal at rs4787924 was replicated in an independent dataset (P = 0.035) and in a joint analysis of all the data (P = 0.001).

Conclusions.

These results suggest that CACNG3 is the best candidate for an AMD risk gene within the 16p12 linkage peak. More studies are needed to confirm this association and clarify the role of the gene in AMD pathogenesis.

In the current study, the gene expression of retinoblastoma tumors was examined in a murine mouse model. The study is the first to show regional and temporal variations in gene expression in these tumors.

Purpose.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate by microarray the hypothesis that LHBETATAG retinoblastoma tumors exhibit regional and temporal variations in gene expression.

Methods.

LHBETATAG mice aged 12, 16, and 20 weeks were euthanatized (n = 9). Specimens were taken from five tumor areas (apex, anterior lateral, center, base, and posterior lateral). Samples were hybridized to gene microarrays. The data were preprocessed and analyzed, and genes with a P < 0.01, according to the ANOVA models, and a log2-fold change >2.5 were considered to be differentially expressed. Differentially expressed genes were analyzed for overlap with known networks by using pathway analysis tools.

Results.

There were significant temporal (P < 10−8) and regional differences in gene expression for LHBETATAG retinoblastoma tumors. At P < 0.01 and log2-fold change >2.5, there were significant changes in gene expression of 190 genes apically, 84 genes anterolaterally, 126 genes posteriorly, 56 genes centrally, and 134 genes at the base. Differentially expressed genes overlapped with known networks, with significant involvement in regulation of cellular proliferation and growth, response to oxygen levels and hypoxia, regulation of cellular processes, cellular signaling cascades, and angiogenesis.

Conclusions.

There are significant temporal and regional variations in the LHBETATAG retinoblastoma model. Differentially expressed genes overlap with key pathways that may play pivotal roles in murine retinoblastoma development. These findings suggest the mechanisms involved in tumor growth and progression in murine retinoblastoma tumors and identify pathways for analysis at a functional level, to determine significance in human retinoblastoma. Microarray analysis of LHBETATAG retinal tumors showed significant regional and temporal variations in gene expression, including dysregulation of genes involved in hypoxic responses and angiogenesis.

While little is known about risk factors for cognitive impairment in early onset Parkinson disease (EOPD), postmortem studies have shown an association between dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and glucocerebrosidase (GBA) mutation. We compared Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) performance and self-reported cognitive impairment in 699 EOPD participants genotyped for mutations in parkin (PRKN), leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2), and GBA. Logistic regression was used to assess the association between reported cognitive impairment and MMSE score, as well as between GBA group membership and self-reported impairment and MMSE. GBA carriers reported more impairment, but MMSE performance did not differ among genetic groups. Detailed neuropsychological testing is required to explore the association between cognitive impairment and GBA mutations.

SUMMARY

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex degenerative retinal disease influenced by both genetic and environmental risk factors. We assessed whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the NOS2A gene increase risk and modulate the effect of smoking in AMD. 998 Caucasian subjects (712 AMD cases and 286 controls) were genotyped for 17 SNPs in NOS2A. Multivariable logistic regression models containing SNP genotypes, age, sex, smoking status and genotype/smoking interaction were constructed. SNP rs8072199 was significantly associated with AMD (OR = 1.3; 95% CI : 1.02, 1.65; P = 0.035). A significant interaction with smoking was detected at rs2248814 (P = 0.037). Stratified data by genotypes demonstrated that the association between AMD and smoking was stronger in carriers of AA genotypes (OR = 35.98; 95% CI: 3.19, 405.98) than in carriers of the AG genotype (OR=3.05; 95% CI: 1.36, 6.74) or GG genotype (OR=2.1; 95% CI: 0.91, 4.84). The results suggest a possible synergistic interaction of AA genotype with smoking, although the result bears replication in larger samples. Our data suggests that SNPs in the NOS2A gene are associated with increased risk for AMD and might modulate the effect of smoking on AMD.

SUMMARY

Parkinson disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder with a cumulative prevalence of greater than one per thousand. To date three independent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have investigated the genetic susceptibility to PD. These studies have also implicated several genes as PD risk loci with strong, but not genome-wide significant, associations.

In this study, we combined data from two previously published GWAS of Caucasian subjects with our GWAS of 604 cases and 619 controls for a joint analysis with a combined sample size of 1752 cases and 1745 controls. SNPs in SNCA (rs2736990, p-value = 6.7×10−8; genome-wide adjusted p = 0.0109, odds ratio (OR) = 1.29 [95% CI: 1.17–1.42] G vs. A allele, population attributable risk percent (PAR%) = 12%) and the MAPT region (rs11012, p-value = 5.6×10−8; genome-wide adjusted p = 0.0079, OR = 0.70 [95% CI: 0.62–0.79] T vs. C allele, PAR% = 8%) were genome-wide significant. No other SNPs were genome-wide significant in this analysis. This study confirms that SNCA and the MAPT region are major genes whose common variants are influencing risk of PD.

Parkinson disease (PD) is a common disorder that leads to motor and cognitive disability. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) with 2000 PD and 1986 control Caucasian subjects from NeuroGenetics Research Consortium.1–5 We confirmed SNCA2,6–8 and MAPT3,7–9; replicated GAK9 (PPankratz+NGRC=3.2×10−9); and detected a novel association with HLA (PNGRC=2.9×10−8) which replicated in two datasets (PMeta-analysis=1.9×10−10). We designate the new PD genes PARK17 (GAK) and PARK18 (HLA). PD-HLA association was uniform across genetic and environmental risk strata, and strong in sporadic (P=5.5×10−10) and late-onset (P=2.4×10−8) PD. The association peak was at rs3129882, a non-coding variant in HLA-DRA. Two studies suggested rs3129882 influences expression of HLA-DR and HLA-DQ.10,11 PD brains exhibit up-regulation of DR antigens and presence of DR-positive reactive microglia.12 Moreover, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) reduce PD risk.4,13 The genetic association with HLA coalesces the evidence for involvement of the immune system and offers new targets for drug development and pharmacogenetics.

Controversy remains as to which gene at the chromosome 10q26 locus confers risk for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and statistical genetic analysis is confounded by the strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) across the region. Functional analysis of related genetic variations could solve this puzzle. Recently Fritsche et al. reported that AMD is associated with unstable ARMS2 transcripts possibly caused by a complex insertion/deletion (indel; consisting of a 443 bp deletion and an adjacent 54 bp insertion) in its 3′UTR (untranslated region). To validate this indel, we sequenced our samples. We found that this indel is even more complex and is composed of two side-by-side indels separated by 17 bp: (1) 9 bp deletion with 10bp insertion; (2) 417 bp deletion with 27 bp insertion. The indel is significantly associated with the risk of AMD, but is also in strong LD with the non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs10490924 (A69S). We also found that ARMS2 is expressed not only in placenta and retina but also in multiple human tissues. Using quantitative PCR, we found no correlation between the indel and ARMS2 mRNA level in human retina and blood samples. The lack of functional effects of the 3′UTR indel, the amino acid substitution of rs10490924 (A69S) and strong LD between them suggest that A69S, not the indel is the variant that confers risk of AMD. To our knowledge, it is the first time it's been shown that ARMS2 is widely expressed in human tissues. Conclusively, the indel at 3′UTR of ARMS2 actually contains two side-by-side indels. The indels are associated with risk of AMD, but not correlated with ARMS2 mRNA level.

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) enzyme is a rate limiting enzyme in dopamine biosynthesis. Missense mutation in both alleles of the TH gene is known to cause dopamine-related phenotypes, including dystonia and infantile Parkinsonism. However, it is not clear if single allele mutation in TH modifies the susceptibility to the adult form of Parkinson disease (PD). We reported a novel deletion of entire TH gene in an adult with PD. The deletion was first identified by copy number variation (CNV) analysis in a genome-wide association study using Illumina Infinium BeadChips. After screening 635 cases and 642 controls, the deletion was found in one PD case but not in any control. The deletion was confirmed by multiple quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays. There is no additional exonic single nucleotide variant in the one copy of TH gene of the patient. The patient has an age-at-onset of 54 years, no evidence for dystonia, and was responsive to L-DOPA. This case supports the importance of the TH gene in PD pathogenesis and raises more attention to rare variants in candidate genes being a risk factor for Parkinson disease. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a global public health problem and a source of preventable deaths each year, with 8.8 million new cases of TB and 1.6 million deaths worldwide in 2005. Approximately, 10% of infected individuals develop pulmonary or extrapulmonary TB, suggesting that host defense factors influence development of active disease. Toll-like receptor’ (TLR) polymorphisms have been associated with regulation of TLR expression and development of active TB. In the present study, 71 polymorphisms in TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR6, and TLR9 were examined from 474 (295 cases and 179 controls) African-Americans, 381 (237 cases and 144 controls) Caucasians, and from 667 (321 cases and 346 controls) Africans from Guinea-Bissau for association with pulmonary TB using generalized estimating equations and logistic regression. Statistically significant associations were observed across populations at TLR9 and TLR2. The strongest evidence for association came at an insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism (−196 to −174) in TLR2 that associated with TB in both Caucasians (II vs. ID&DD, OR=0.41 [95% CI 0.24–0.68], p=0.0007) and Africans (II vs. ID&DD, OR=0.70 [95% CI 0.51–0.95], p=0.023). Our findings in three independent population samples indicate that variations in TLR2 and TLR9 might play important roles in determining susceptibility to TB.

PURPOSE

To analyze the relationship between ARMS2 and HTRA1 in the association with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in an independent case-control dataset, and to investigate the subcellular localization of the ARMS2 protein in an in vitro system.

METHOD

Two SNPs in ARMS2 and HTRA1 were genotyped in 685 cases and 269 controls by Taqman Assay. Allelic association was tested by a χ2 test. A likelihood ratio test (LRT) of full vs. reduced models was utilized to analyze the interaction between ARMS2 and smoking and HTRA1 and smoking, after adjusting for CFH and age. Immunofluorescence and immunoblot were applied to localize ARMS2 in retinal epithelial ARPE-19 cells and COS7 cell transfected by ARMS2 constructs.

RESULT

Both significantly associated SNP rs10490924 and rs11200638 (P<0.0001) are in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) (D′=0.97, r2=0.93) that generates virtually identical association test and odds ratios. In separate logistic regression models the interaction effect for both smoking with ARMS2 and with HTRA1 was not statistically significant. Immunofluorescence and immunoblot show that both endogenous and exogenous ARMS2 are mainly distributed in the cytosol, not the mitochondria. Comparing to wild type, ARMS2 A69S is more likely to be associated with cytoskeleton in COS7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The significant associations in ARMS2 and HTRA1 are with polymorphisms in strong LD that confer virtually identical risks, preventing differentiation at the statistical level. We found that ARMS2 was mainly distributed in the cytosol, not in mitochondrial outer membrane as previously reported, suggesting that ARMS2 may not confer risk to AMD through the mitochondrial pathway.

Tuberculosis (TB) has substantial mortality worldwide with 5-10% of those exposed progressing to active TB disease. Studies in mice and humans indicate that the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) molecule plays an important role in immune response to TB. A mixed case-control association study of individuals with TB, relatives, or close contact controls was performed in 726 individuals (279 case and 166 control African-Americans; 198 case and 123 control Caucasians). Thirty-nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were selected from the NOS2A gene for single SNP, haplotype, and multilocus interaction analyses with other typed candidate genes using generalized estimating equations. In African-Americans, ten NOS2A SNPs were associated with TB. The strongest associations were observed at rs2274894 (odds ratio (OR) = 1.84, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.23-2.77], p = 0.003) and rs7215373 (OR 1.67, 95% CI [1.17-2.37], p = 0.004), both of which passed a false discovery rate (FDR) correction for multiple comparisons (q*=0.20). The strongest gene-gene interactions were observed between NOS2A rs2248814 and IFNGR1 rs1327474 (p = 0.0004) and NOS2A rs944722 and IFNGR1 rs1327474 (p = 0.0006). Three other SNPs in NOS2A interacted with TLR4 rs5030729 and five other NOS2A SNPs interacted with IFNGR1 rs1327474. No significant associations were observed in Caucasians. These results suggest that NOS2A variants may contribute to TB susceptibility, particularly in individuals of African descent, and may act synergistically with SNPs in TLR4 and IFNGR1.

The findings of this study provide the first evidence suggesting that ARMS2 interacts with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to modulate AMD risk and are consistent with previous reports demonstrating a protective relationship between exogenous estrogen use and neovascular AMD. These results highlight the genetic and environmental complexity of the etiologic architecture of AMD.

Purpose.

To investigate whether female reproductive history and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or birth control pills (BCPs) influence risk for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and whether genetic factors interact with HRT to modulate AMD risk.

Methods.

Related and unrelated female participants (n = 799) were examined and data were analyzed with generalized estimating equations with adjustment for age and smoking. Individuals with AMD grades 1 to 2 were considered to be unaffected (n = 239) and those with grades 3 to 5 were considered affected (n = 560).

Results.

When comparing all cases with controls, significant inverse associations were observed for HRT (odds ratio [OR] = 0.65, 95% CI 0.48–0.90, P = 0.008) and BCPs (OR = 0.60, 95% CI 0.36–0.10, P = 0.048). When analyses were stratified by AMD severity (early versus geographic atrophy versus neovascular), the inverse association remained significant (HRT OR = 0.45, 95% CI 0.30–0.66, P < 0.0001; BCP OR = 0.55, 95% CI 0.32–0.96, P = 0.036) only when comparing neovascular AMD with the control. All pair-wise HRT-genotype and BCP-genotype interactions were examined, to determine whether HRT or BCP modifies the effect of established genetic risk factors. The strongest interactions were observed for HRT x ARMS2 coding SNP (R73H) rs10490923 (P = 0.007) and HRT x ARMS2 intronic SNP rs17623531 (P = 0.019).

Conclusions.

These findings provide the first evidence suggesting that ARMS2 interacts with HRT to modulate AMD risk and are consistent with previous reports demonstrating a protective relationship between exogenous estrogen use and neovascular AMD. These results highlight the genetic and environmental complexity of the etiologic architecture of AMD; however, further replication is necessary to validate them.

Although it has recently been shown that A/J mice are highly susceptible to Staphylococcus aureus sepsis as compared to C57BL/6J, the specific genes responsible for this differential phenotype are unknown. Using chromosome substitution strains (CSS), we found that loci on chromosomes 8, 11, and 18 influence susceptibility to S. aureus sepsis in A/J mice. We then used two candidate gene selection strategies to identify genes on these three chromosomes associated with S. aureus susceptibility, and targeted genes identified by both gene selection strategies. First, we used whole genome transcription profiling to identify 191 (56 on chr. 8, 100 on chr. 11, and 35 on chr. 18) genes on our three chromosomes of interest that are differentially expressed between S. aureus-infected A/J and C57BL/6J. Second, we identified two significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) for survival post-infection on chr. 18 using N2 backcross mice (F1 [C18A]×C57BL/6J). Ten genes on chr. 18 (March3, Cep120, Chmp1b, Dcp2, Dtwd2, Isoc1, Lman1, Spire1, Tnfaip8, and Seh1l) mapped to the two significant QTL regions and were also identified by the expression array selection strategy. Using real-time PCR, 6 of these 10 genes (Chmp1b, Dtwd2, Isoc1, Lman1, Tnfaip8, and Seh1l) showed significantly different expression levels between S. aureus-infected A/J and C57BL/6J. For two (Tnfaip8 and Seh1l) of these 6 genes, siRNA-mediated knockdown of gene expression in S. aureus–challenged RAW264.7 macrophages induced significant changes in the cytokine response (IL-1 β and GM-CSF) compared to negative controls. These cytokine response changes were consistent with those seen in S. aureus-challenged peritoneal macrophages from CSS 18 mice (which contain A/J chromosome 18 but are otherwise C57BL/6J), but not C57BL/6J mice. These findings suggest that two genes, Tnfaip8 and Seh1l, may contribute to susceptibility to S. aureus in A/J mice, and represent promising candidates for human genetic susceptibility studies.

Author Summary

Staphylococcus aureus has a wide spectrum of human infection, ranging from asymptomatic nasal carriage to overwhelming sepsis and death. Mouse models offer an attractive strategy for investigating complex diseases such as S. aureus infections. A/J mice are highly susceptible to S. aureus infection compared with C57BL/6J mice. We showed that genes on chromosomes 8, 11, and 18 in A/J are responsible for susceptibility to S. aureus by using chromosome substitution strains (CSS). From the ∼4200 genes on these three chromosomes, we identified 191 which were differentially expressed between A/J and C57BL/6J when challenged with S. aureus. Next, we identified two significant QTLs on chromosome 18 that are associated with susceptibility to S. aureus infection in N2 backcross mice. Ten genes (March3, Cep120, Chmp1b, Dcp2, Dtwd2, Isoc1, Lman1, Spire1, Tnfaip8, and Seh1l) mapped to the two significant QTLs and were differentially expressed between A/J and C57BL/6J. One gene on each QTL, Tnfaip8 and Seh1l, affected expression of cytokines in mouse macrophages exposed to S. aureus. These cytokine response patterns were consistent with those seen in S. aureus-challenged peritoneal macrophages from CSS 18, but not C57BL/6J. Tnfaip8 and Seh1l are strong candidates for genes influencing susceptibility to S. aureus of A/J mice.

Objective

Genome-wide association (GWAS) methods have identified genes contributing to Parkinson disease (PD); we sought to identify additional genes associated with PD susceptibility.

Methods

A two stage design was used. First, individual level genotypic data from five recent PD GWAS (Discovery Sample: 4,238 PD cases and 4,239 controls) were combined. Following imputation, a logistic regression model was employed in each dataset to test for association with PD susceptibility and results from each dataset were meta-analyzed. Second, 768 SNPs were genotyped in an independent Replication Sample (3,738 cases and 2,111 controls).

Results

Genome-wide significance was reached for SNPs in SNCA (rs356165, G: odds ratio (OR)=1.37; p=9.3 × 10−21), MAPT (rs242559, C: OR=0.78; p=1.5 × 10−10), GAK/DGKQ (rs11248051, T:OR=1.35; p=8.2 × 10−9/ rs11248060, T: OR=1.35; p=2.0×10−9), and the HLA region (rs3129882, A: OR=0.83; p=1.2 × 10−8), which were previously reported. The Replication Sample confirmed the associations with SNCA, MAPT, and the HLA region and also with GBA (E326K OR=1.71; p=5 × 10−8 Combined Sample) (N370 OR=3.08; p=7 × 10−5 Replication sample). A novel PD susceptibility locus, RIT2, on chromosome 18 (rs12456492; p=5 × 10−5 Discovery Sample; p=1.52 × 10−7 Replication sample; p=2 × 10−10 Combined Sample) was replicated. Conditional analyses within each of the replicated regions identified distinct SNP associations within GBA and SNCA, suggesting that there may be multiple risk alleles within these genes.

Interpretation

We identified a novel PD susceptibility locus, RIT2, replicated several previously identified loci, and identified more than one risk allele within SNCA and GBA.

Inflammation has long been suspected to play a role in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Association of variants in the complement factor H (CFH) and complement factor B (CFB) genes has targeted the search for additional loci to the alternative complement cascade, of which C3 is a major component. Two non-synonymous coding polymorphisms within C3, R102G and L314P, have previously been strongly associated with increased risk. These variants are in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD), making the contribution of this locus to AMD even more difficult to ascertain. We sought to determine whether the C3 association resulted primarily from only one of these two variants or from a combined effect of both in 223 families and an independent dataset of 701 cases and 286 unrelated controls. The C3 polymorphisms were in strong LD (r2 = 0.85), and both were associated in the family-based and case–control datasets (R102G genoPDT P = 0.02, case–control genotypic P = 0.004; L314P genoPDT P = 0.001, case–control genotypic P = 0.04). In conditional analyses in the case–control dataset, R102G remained associated with disease in the L314P risk allele carriers (P = 0.01), but there was no effect of L314P in the R102G risk allele carriers (P = 0.2). After adjusting for age, smoking, CFH Y402H, LOC387715 A69S, and CFB R32Q, the effect of R102G remained strong [P = 0.015, odds ratio = 1.55, 95% confidence interval 1.09 to 2.21, adjusted PAR(population attributable risk) = 0.17]. Therefore, while the strong LD between R102G and L314P makes it difficult to disentangle their individual effects on disease risk, the R102G polymorphism acting alone provides the best model for disease in our data.

We assessed the role of genetic variation in cytokine and cytokine receptor genes in susceptibility and severity of bloodstream infections with Candida species, which revealed a major role for functional polymorphisms in interleukin-10 and interleukin-12p40 in predisposing to persistent fungemia.

Background. Candida bloodstream infections cause significant morbidity and mortality among hospitalized patients. Although clinical and microbiological factors affecting prognosis have been identified, the impact of genetic variation in the innate immune responses mediated by cytokines on outcomes of infection remains to be studied.

Methods. A cohort of 338 candidemia patients and 351 noninfected controls were genotyped for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 6 cytokine genes (IFNG, IL10, IL12B, IL18, IL1β, IL8) and 1 cytokine receptor gene (IL12RB1). The association of SNPs with both candidemia susceptibility and outcome were assessed. Concentrations of pro- and antiinflammatory cytokines were measured in in vitro peripheral blood mononuclear cell stimulation assays and in serum from infected patients.

Results. None of the cytokine SNPs studied were associated with susceptibility to candidemia. Persistent fungemia occurred in 13% of cases. In the multivariable model, persistent candidemia was significantly associated with (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]): total parenteral nutrition (2.79 [1.26–6.17]), dialysis dependence (3.76 [1.46–8.64]), and the SNPs IL10 rs1800896 (3.45 [1.33–8.93]) and IL12B rs41292470 (5.36 [1.51–19.0]). In vitro production capacity of interleukin-10 and interferon-γ was influenced by these polymorphisms, and significantly lower proinflammatory cytokine concentrations were measured in serum from patients with persistent fungemia.

Conclusions. Polymorphisms in IL10 and IL12B that result in low production of proinflammatory cytokines are associated with persistent fungemia in candidemia patients. This provides insights for future targeted management strategies for patients with Candida bloodstream infections.

Susceptibility genes for Alzheimer's disease are proving to be highly challenging to detect and verify. Population heterogeneity may be a significant confounding factor contributing to this difficulty. To increase the power for disease susceptibility gene detection we conducted a genome-wide genetic linkage screen using individuals from the relatively isolated, genetically homogeneous, Amish population. Our genome linkage analysis used a 407 microsatellite marker map (average density 7 cM) to search for autosomal genes linked to dementia in five Amish families from four Midwestern U.S. counties. Our highest two-point lod score (3.01) was observed at marker D4S1548 on chromosome 4q31. Five other regions (10q22, 3q28, 11p13, 4q28, 19p13) also demonstrated suggestive linkage with markers having two-point lod scores >2.0. While two of these regions are novel (4q31 and 11p13), the other regions lie close to regions identified in previous genome scans in other populations. Our results identify regions of the genome that may harbor genes involved in a subset of dementia patients, in particular the North American Amish community.