Though much of the research on atherosclerosis has focused on the intimal accumulation of lipids and inflammatory cells, there is an increasing amount of interest in the role of the adventitia in coordinating the immune response in atherosclerosis. In this review of the contributions of the adventitia and adventitial lymphocytes to the development of atherosclerosis, we discuss recent research on the formation and structural nature of adventitial immune aggregates, potential mechanisms of crosstalk between the intima, media, and adventitia, specific contributions of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, and the role of the vasa vasorum and surrounding perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT). Furthermore, we highlight techniques for the imaging of lymphocytes in the vasculature.

In the United States alone, more than 400,000 Americans die annually from coronary artery disease and more than 1,000,000 suffer acute coronary events, i.e., myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death.1 Considering the aging of our population and increasing incidence of diabetes and obesity, the morbidity from coronary artery disease, and its associated costs, will place an increasing, substantial burden on our society.2 Between 2010 and 2030, total direct medical costs spent in the US for cardiovascular diseases are projected to triple from 273 to 818 billion dollars.2 Although effective treatments are available and considerable efforts are ongoing to identify new strategies for the prevention of coronary events, predicting such events in an individual has been challenging.3 In hopes of improving our ability to determine the risk of coronary events, it is prudent to review our knowledge of factors that lead to acute coronary events.

Objectives

We sought to determine the anti-atherosclerotic properties of pioglitazone using multi-modality non-invasive imaging techniques.

Background

Inflammation is an essential component of vulnerable or high risk atheromas. Pioglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ)agonist possesses potent anti-inflammatory properties. We aimed to non-invasively to quantify the anti-inflammatory effects of pioglitazone on atheroma using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG)-PET/CT and dynamic contrast enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI).

Methods

Atherosclerotic plaques were induced in the aorta of fifteen New Zealand White (NZW) rabbits by a combination of hyperlipidemic diet and two balloon endothelial denudations. Nine rabbits continued the same diet whereas six received pioglitazone (10mg/kg orally) in addition to the diet. Twelve animals underwent 18F-FDG-PET/CT and fifteen animals underwent DCE-MRI at baseline, one and three months after treatment initiation. Concomitantly, serum metabolic parameters were monitored. After imaging was completed aortic histological analysis and correlation analysis was performed.

Results

18F-FDG-PET/CT detected an increase in average standardized uptake value (SUV) in the control group (p<0.01), indicating progressive inflammation, while stable SUV values were observed in the treatment group, indicating no progression. DCE-MRI detected a significant decrease in area under the curve (AUC) for the pioglitazone group (p<0.01). Immunohistology of the aortas demonstrated a significant decrease in macrophage and oxidized phospholipid immunoreactivity in the pioglitazone group (p=0.04 and p=0.01, respectively) with respect to control animals, underlining the imaging results. Serum metabolic parameters showed no difference between groups. A strong positive correlation between SUV and macrophage density and AUC and neovessels was detected ( r2=0.86, p<0.0001 and r2=0.66, p=0.004, respectively).

Conclusions

18F-FDG-PET/CT and DCE-MRI demonstrate non-invasively the anti-inflammatory effects of pioglitazone on atheroma. Both imaging modalities appear suited to monitor inflammation in atherosclerosis.

Purpose

To evaluate the relationship between atherosclerotic plaque inflammation, as assessed by FDG-Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (FDG-PET/CT), and plaque morphology and composition, as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), in the carotid and femoral arteries.

Materials and methods

Sixteen patients underwent FDG-PET/CT and MRI (T2 weighted (T2W) and Proton density weighted (PDW)) of the carotid and femoral arteries. For every image slice, two observers determined the corresponding regions of the FDG-PET/CT and MRI image sets by matching CT and T2W axial images. Each plaque was then classified into one of three groups according to the CT appearance and T2W/PDW signal: 1) collagen, 2) lipid-necrotic core and 3) calcium.

Arterial FDG uptake was measured for each plaque and normalized to vein FDG activity to produce a blood-normalized artery activity called the target to background ratio (TBR). The vessel wall thickness (VWT), the vessel wall area and the total vessel wall area were measured from the T2W MR images.

Results

The TBR value was higher in the lipid-necrotic core group compared to the collagen and calcium groups, (p < 0.001). The lipid-necrotic core group demonstrated a significant TBR variation according to the median of the VWT (TBR = 1.26 ± 0.25 vs. TBR = 1.50 ± 0.12). There was no correlation with other morphological MR parameters.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates the complementary value of non-invasive FDG-PET/CT and MR imaging for the evaluation of atherosclerotic plaque composition and activity. Lipid-rich plaques are more inflamed than either calcified or collagen-rich plaques.

Objective

Osteoporosis trials suggest raloxifene decreased cardiovascular events in women with preexisting atherosclerosis. We assessed the hypothesis that selective estrogen receptor modulation induces plaque stability in “menopausal” animals.

Methods and Results

Atherosclerosis was induced in 42 ovariectomized New Zealand White rabbits by cholesterol feeding and mechanical injury. Animals were imaged by magnetic resonance (MRI) for baseline atherosclerosis, and randomized to control (OVX, n=12), raloxifene 35–60 mg/kg/day by diet admixture (RLX, n=24), or immediate sacrifice (n=6) for immunohistopathologic correlation of MRI. Six months later, rabbits underwent repeat MRI then sacrifice for micro-computed tomography (μCT) and molecular analysis. Unlike OVX, RLX reduced atheroma volume. Analysis for lesion inflammation revealed reductions in COX-2, MMP-1, MCP-1 expression and macrophage infiltration in RLX vs. OVX with concomitant upregulation of estrogen receptor α. μCT showed similar total vascular calcification between groups, but calcifications in RLX were less nodular with better radial organization (mean calcific arc angle 63 ± 7° vs. 33 ± 6° in OVX), the predicted result of a 53% increase in BMP-2.

Conclusions

Raloxifene treatment results in reduced lesion volume, enhanced mechanical stability of vascular calcification, and less inflamed lesions characterized by less macrophage infiltration and reduced COX-2, MMP-1 and MCP-1 expression.

Aims

P947 is a gadolinium-based magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent with high affinity for several matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) involved in arterial wall remodelling. We tested whether the intensity of enhancement detected in vivo in the arterial wall with P947 and MRI correlates with actual tissue MMP-related enzymatic activity measured in a rabbit atherosclerotic model subjected to dietary manipulations.

Methods and results

Aortas of 15 rabbits in which atherosclerotic lesions were induced by balloon angioplasty and 4 months of hypercholesterolaemic diet were imaged at ‘baseline’ with P947-enhanced MRI. Atherosclerotic rabbits were divided into three groups: five rabbits were sacrificed (‘baseline’ group); five rabbits continued to be fed a lipid-supplemented diet (‘high-fat’ group); and five rabbits were switched from atherogenic to a purified chow diet (‘low-fat’ group). Four months later, a second P947-enhanced MRI was acquired in the 10 remaining rabbits. A significantly lower signal was detected in the aortic wall of rabbits from the ‘low-fat’ group as compared with rabbits from the ‘high-fat’ group (21 ± 6 vs. 46 ± 3%, respectively; P = 0.04). Such differences were not detected with the contrast agent P1135, which lacks the MMP-specific peptide sequence. In addition, the intensity of aortic wall enhancement detected with MRI after injection of P947 strongly correlated with actual MMP-2 gelatinolytic activity measured in corresponding aortic segments using zymography (r = 0.87).

Conclusion

P947-enhanced MRI can distinguish dietary-induced variations in MMP-related enzymatic activity within plaques in an experimental atherosclerotic model, supporting its utility as a clinical imaging tool for in vivo detection of arterial wall remodelling.

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease causing great morbidity and mortality in the Western world. To increase the anti-inflammatory action and decrease adverse effects of glucocorticoids (PLP), a nanomedicinal liposomal formulation of this drug (L-PLP) was developed and intravenously applied at a dose of 15 mg/kg PLP to a rabbit model of atherosclerosis. Since atherosclerosis is a systemic disease, emerging imaging modalities for assessing atherosclerotic plaque are being developed. 18F-fluoro-deoxy-glucose positron emission tomography and dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging, methods commonly used in oncology, were applied to longitudinally assess therapeutic efficacy. Significant anti-inflammatory effects were observed as early as 2 days that lasted up to at least 7 days after administration of a single dose of L-PLP. No significant changes were found for the free PLP treated animals. These findings were corroborated by immunohistochemical analysis of macrophage density in the vessel wall. In conclusion, this study evaluates a powerful two-pronged strategy for efficient treatment of atherosclerosis that includes nanomedical therapy of atherosclerotic plaques and the application of non-invasive and clinically approved imaging techniques to monitor delivery and therapeutic responses. Importantly, we demonstrate unprecedented rapid anti-inflammatory effects in atherosclerotic lesions after the nanomedical therapy.

Introduction

This cross sectional study was conducted to test reproducibility of analysis of MRI parameters in carotids and thoracic descending aorta (TOA), evaluate the correlation of plaque burden and associations with subject age and gender.

Methods

Three hundred subjects, with cardiovascular risk factors, underwent a black blood MRI of both carotids and TOA. Mean wall area, wall thickness, lumen area, total vessel area and wall area/total vessel area (WA/TVA) ratio were manually measured. Inter-reader and intra-reader-reproducibility was tested on 187 and 20 randomly chosen subjects respectively.

Results

The intra-observer-reproducibility for the analysis was high (Intraclass-Correlation-Coefficients (ICC’s >0.8), except mean WA/TVA ratio of TOA. Similarly, the inter-observer reproducibility was acceptable (ICC’s >0.7 for mean wall area, lumen area and total vessel area). MRI parameters in aorta and carotids increased with age for both sexes (p<0.001). Except for mean wall thickness of TOA and WA/TVA ratio, MRI parameters were significantly higher in males than in females. All MRI measurements except the mean wall thickness and WA/TVA ratio were highly reproducible. There was good correlation for mean wall area between carotids and aorta compatible with the systemic nature of atherosclerosis. Similar to clinical presentation of cardiovascular diseases we found greater values in most MRI parameters (except for WA/TVA ratio) in males than in females and with increasing age.

Conclusions

These data suggest that analysis of most MRI measurements of plaque burden is reproducible and that there is correlation between plaque burden between carotids and aorta validating the systemic distribution of the disease.

Background

Polypills which include multiple medications for reducing cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in a single pill have been proposed for population-wide use. The number of US adults eligible for polypills and potential benefits are unknown.

Methods

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2004 and 2007-2008 were analyzed to estimate treatment rates for medications proposed for inclusion in polypills (aspirin, statin, an ACE-inhibitor, and a thiazide-type diuretic for those without, a beta-blocker for those with, a history of myocardial infarction) among US adults. The number of coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke events potentially prevented through polypill use was projected by published meta-analyses and three large population-based cohort studies. Two polypill eligibility criteria were analyzed (1) US adults ≥ 55 years and (2) US adults with a history of CVD.

Results

There are 67.6 million US adults ≥ 55 years and 15.4 million US adults with a history of CVD and, thus, eligible for polypills using the two outlined criteria. In 2007-2008, 37.3% of US adults ≥ 55 years and 57.0% of those with a history of CVD were taking statins. Use of other polypill medications was also low. Polypill use by US adults age ≥ 55 years is projected to potentially prevent 3.2 million CHD events and 1.7 million strokes over 10 years. Amongst those with a history of CVD, the potential to prevent of 0.9 million CHD events and 0.5 million strokes is projected.

Conclusions

Polypills have the potential to lower CVD incidence substantially among US adults.

Objectives

To determine whether nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate (NCBP) therapy is associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular calcification.

Background

Cardiovascular calcification correlates with atherosclerotic disease burden. Experimental data suggest that NCBP may limit cardiovascular calcification, which has implications for disease prevention.

Methods

The relationship of NCBP use to the prevalence of aortic valve, aortic valve ring, mitral annulus, thoracic aorta, and coronary artery calcification (AVC, AVRC, MAC, TAC, and CAC, respectively) detected by computed tomography was assessed in 3,636 women within the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) using regression modeling.

Results

Analyses were age-stratified because of a significant interaction between age and NCBP use (interaction p-values: AVC p<0.0001; AVRC p<0.0001; MAC p=0.002; TAC p<0.0001; CAC p=0.046). After adjusting for age, body mass index, demographics, diabetes, smoking, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and statin, hormone replacement, and renin-angiotensin inhibitor therapy, NCBP use was associated with a lower prevalence of cardiovascular calcification in women ≥65 years old (prevalence ratio [95% confidence interval]: AVC 0.68 [0.41, 1.13]; AVRC 0.65 [0.51, 0.84]; MAC 0.54 [0.33, 0.93]; TAC 0.69 [0.54, 0.88]; CAC 0.89 [0.78, 1.02]), whereas calcification was more prevalent in NCBP users among the 2,181 women <65 years old (AVC 4.00 [2.33, 6.89]; AVRC 1.92 [1.42, 2.61]; MAC 2.35 [1.12, 4.84]; TAC 2.17 [1.49, 3.15]; CAC 1.23 [0.97, 1.57]).

Conclusions

Among women in the diverse MESA cohort, NCBPs were associated with decreased prevalence of cardiovascular calcification in older subjects, but more prevalent cardiovascular calcification in younger ones. Further study is warranted to clarify these age-dependent NCBP effects.

Introduction

The association of inflammatory cells and neovessels in atherosclerosis is considered a histological hallmark of high-risk active lesions. Therefore, the development and validation of noninvasive imaging techniques that allow for the detection of inflammation and neoangiogenesis in atherosclerosis would be of major clinical interest.

Objective

Our aim was to test two techniques, black blood dynamic contrast enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) and 18-fluorine-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) PET, to quantify inflammation expressed as plaque neovessels content in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis.

Methods and Results

Atherosclerotic plaques were induced in the aorta of ten rabbits by a combination of two endothelial abrasions and four months hyperlipidemic diet. Six rabbits underwent MRI during the injection of Gd-DTPA, while four rabbits were imaged after injection of 18F-FDG with PET. We found a positive correlation between neovessels count in atherosclerotic plaques and 1) Gd-DTPA uptake parameters evaluated by DCE-MRI (r = 0.89, p = 0.016) and 2) 18F-FDG uptake evaluated by PET (r = 0.5, p =0.103 after clustered robust, Huber-White, standard errors analysis).

Conclusion

DCE-MRI and 18F-FDG PET may allow for the evaluation of inflammation in atherosclerotic plaques of rabbits. These non-invasive imaging modalities could be proposed as clinical tools in the evaluation of lesion prognosis and monitoring of anti–angiogenic therapies.

Background

Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG PET) imaging of atherosclerosis has been used to quantify plaque inflammation and to measure the effect of plaque stabilizing drugs. Here we explore how atherosclerotic plaque inflammation varies across arterial territories and how it relates to arterial calcification. We also test the hypotheses that the degree of local arterial inflammation measured by PET is correlated with the extent of systemic inflammation and presence of risk factors for vascular disease.

Methods and Results

Forty-one subjects underwent vascular PET/CT imaging with FDG. All had either vascular disease or multiple risk factors for it. Forty subjects underwent carotid imaging, twenty-seven underwent aortic, twenty-four iliac and thirteen femoral imaging. Thirty-three subjects had a panel of biomarkers analyzed.

We found strong associations between FDG uptake in neighboring arteries (left vs. right carotid r=0.91, p<0.001, ascending aorta vs. aortic arch r=0.88, p<0.001). Calcification and inflammation rarely overlapped within arteries – carotid artery FDG uptake vs. calcium score r=−0.42, p=0.03). Carotid artery FDG uptake was greater in those with a history of coronary artery disease (target to background ratio (TBR) 1.83 vs. 1.61, p<0.01), and in males vs. females (TBR 1.83 vs. 1.63, p<0.05). Similar findings were also noted in the aorta and iliac arteries. Subjects with the highest levels of FDG uptake also had the greatest concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers: descending aorta TBR vs. matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP 3): r=0.53, p=0.01 and carotid TBR vs. MMP 9: r=0.50, p=0.01. Non-significant positive trends were seen between FDG uptake and levels of interleukin 18, fibrinogen and C-reactive protein. Finally, we found that the atheroprotective biomarker adiponectin was negatively correlated with the degree of arterial inflammation in the descending aorta: r=−0.49, p=0.03).

Conclusions

This study shows that FDG PET imaging can increase our knowledge of how atherosclerotic plaque inflammation relates to calcification, serum biomarkers and vascular risk factors. Plaque inflammation and calcification rarely overlap, supporting the theory that calcification represents a late, burnt-out stage of atherosclerosis. Inflammation in one arterial territory is associated with inflammation elsewhere, and the degree of local arterial inflammation is reflected in the blood levels of several circulating biomarkers. We suggest that FDG PET imaging could be used as a surrogate marker of both atherosclerotic disease activity and drug effectiveness. Prospective, event driven studies are now underway to determine the role of this technique in clinical risk prediction.

The High-Risk Plaque (HRP) Initiative is a research and development effort to advance the understanding, recognition, and management of asymptomatic individuals at risk for a near-term atherothrombotic event such as myocardial infarction or stroke. Clinical studies using the newest technologies have been initiated, including the BioImage Study in which novel approaches are tested in a typical health plan population. Asymptomatic at-risk individuals were enrolled, including a survey-only group (n = 865), a group undergoing traditional risk factor scoring (n = 718), and a group in which all were assessed for both risk factors and subclinical atherosclerosis (n = 6104). The latter two groups underwent baseline examination in a dedicated mobile facility equipped with advanced imaging tools suitable for noninvasive screening for subclinical atherosclerosis (coronary artery calcium by computed tomography [CT], carotid and aortic disease by ultrasound, and ankle-brachial index). Selected participants were offered advanced imaging (contrast-enhanced CT, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography/CT). Plasma, PAXgene RNA, and DNA samples were obtained for biomarker discovery studies. All individuals will be followed until 600 major atherothrombotic events have occurred in those undergoing imaging.

Aims

Depression and anxiety are linked to coronary events but the mechanism(s) remains unclear. We investigated the associations of depression and anxiety with serotonin-mediated platelet hyperactivity in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients in a cross-sectional study.

Methods and results

Three months after an acute coronary event, stable CAD patients (n = 83) on aspirin and clopidogrel were evaluated for depression (beck depression inventory) and anxiety (hospital anxiety and depression scale), and their platelet reactivity was measured (optical aggregometry and flow cytometric fibrinogen binding in response to adenosine diphosphate (ADP = 5 µM) and two serotonin + epinephrine doses [5HT:E (L) = 4 µM + 4 µM and 5HT:E (H) = 10 µM + 4 µM]. Platelet reactivity was significantly higher in depressed and anxious than in depressed only or non-depressed-and-non-anxious patients. Aggregation (mean ± SE) was 41.9 ± 2.6% vs. 32.2 ± 2.6% vs. 30.4 ± 3.7% with 5HT:E (L) and 46.9 ± 2.7% vs. 35.6 ± 2.7% vs. 31.7 ± 3.8% with 5HT:E (H) (P < 0.05 for both). Differences in ADP aggregations were not significant, perhaps because of clopidogrel therapy. Flow cytometry findings were similar. In a multivariate linear regression model adjusted for age, body mass index, and each other, anxiety symptoms independently predicted all 5HT:E-mediated platelet reactivity measures, whereas depression predicted none.

Conclusion

Anxiety is associated with elevated serotonin-mediated platelet reactivity in stable CAD patients and symptoms of anxiety show strong, independent correlations with platelet function.

The incidence and prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) are increasing worldwide. AF is of public health importance as it accounts for substantial morbidity, mortality, and health-care costs. AF may be transient initially, but many patients have progressive disease marked by increasing frequency and duration of episodes. Various classification schemes for AF have been proposed, although current guidelines are based on temporal rhythm-based patterns. We discuss existing schemes for the classification of AF, focusing on the advantages and limitations of the pattern-based scheme, in the context of new knowledge about AF pathophysiology, AF patterns, and clinical outcomes. Furthermore, we address gaps in knowledge that present opportunities to re-examine the current pattern-based classification of AF. A future classification scheme should ideally combine elements such as the risk of stroke, an assessment of symptoms, and the impairment of the atrial substrate.

Objectives

We sought to determine if gadolinium (Gd)-containing lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) targeting the macrophage scavenger receptor-B (CD36) improve magnetic resonance (MR) detection and characterization of human atherosclerosis.

Background

The ability to detect atherosclerosis with MR imaging using gadolinium Gd-containing lipid-based NPs targeting macrophages may enable early detection of high-risk lesions prior to an atherothrombotic event. Gd-containing lipid-based NPs targeting macrophages improved MR detection of murine atherosclerosis.

Methods

Gd-containing NPs, anti-CD36 NPs and Fc-NPs were created. Macrophages were incubated with fluorescent targeted and non-targeted NPs to determine uptake via confocal microscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) quatified Gd uptake. Human aortic specimens were harvested at autopsy. Using a 1.5 T scanner, T1, T2, and PDW 3-dimensional scans were performed along with post-contrast scans after 24 h incubation. T1 and cluster analysis were performed and compared with immunohistopathology.

Results

The NPs had a mean diameter of 125 nm, 14,900 Gd-ions, and relaxivity was 37 mM-1s-1 at 1.5T and 37°C. Confocal microscopy and ICP-MS demonstrated significant in vitro macrophage uptake of targeted NPs while non-targeted NPs had minimal uptake. On T1 imaging, targeted NPs increased CNR by 52.5% which was significantly great than Fc-NPs (CNR increased 17.2%) and non-targeted NPs (CNR increased 18.7%) (p=0.001). Confocal fluorescent microscopy showed that NPs target resident macrophages while the untargeted NPs and Fc-NPs are found diffusely throughout the plaque. Targeted NPs had a greater signal intensity increase in the fibrous cap compared with (p<0.001) while non-targeted NPs and Fc-NPs had a greater increase in the lipid core (p<0.01).

Conclusion

Macrophage-specific (CD36) NPs bind human macrophages and improved MR detection and characterization of human aortic atherosclerosis. Thus, macrophage-specific NPs could help identify high-risk human plaque prior to the development of an atherothrombotic event.