Objective

Retinal microvascular signs are associated with systemic conditions and cognitive decline. We studied the associations of microvascular changes, measured by retinal signs, with disability in performing activities of daily living (ADL).

Design

Prospective cohort study.

Setting

Community.

Participants

1487 participants in the Cardiovascular Health Study (mean age 78 years) who were free of ADL disability and had available data on retinal signs and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) at the 1998–99 visit.

Main Outcome Measure

Incident ADL disability, defined as self-reported difficulty in performing any ADLs, by the presence of retinal signs and advanced carotid atherosclerosis, defined by carotid IMT ≥ 80th percentile or ≥ 25% stenosis; and potential mediation by cerebral microvascular disease on brain imaging or by executive dysfunction, slow gait, and depressive mood that are symptoms of frontal subcortical dysfunction.

Results

During the median follow-up of 3.1 years (maximum 7.8 years), participants with ≥ 2 retinal signs had a higher rate of disability than those with < 2 retinal signs (10.1% versus 7.1%; adjusted hazards ratio, 1.45; 95% confidence interval, 1.24–1.69; P < 0.001). There was no evidence of interaction by advanced carotid atherosclerosis (P > 0.10). The association seemed to be partially mediated by executive dysfunction, slow gait, and depressive symptoms, but not by cerebral microvascular disease on brain imaging.

Conclusions

These results provide further support for the pathophysiologic and prognostic significance of microvascular disease in age-related disability. However, it remains to be determined how to best utilize retinal photography in the clinical risk prediction.

Objectives

We sought to determine whether novel markers not involving ionizing radiation could predict CAC progression in a low-risk population.

Background

Increase in coronary artery calcium (CAC) scores over time (CAC progression) improves prediction of coronary heart disease (CHD) events. Due to radiation exposure, CAC measurement represents an undesirable method for repeated risk assessment, particularly in low predicted risk individuals (Framingham Risk Score [FRS] <10%).

Methods

From 6814 MESA participants, 2620 individuals were classified as low risk for CHD events (FRS <10%), and had follow-up CAC measurement. In addition to traditional risk factors [(RFs) - base model], various combinations of novel-marker models were selected based on data-driven, clinical, or backward stepwise selection techniques.

Results

Mean follow-up was 2.5 years. CAC progression occurred in 574 participants (22% overall; 214 of 1830 with baseline CAC =0, and 360 of 790 with baseline CAC >0). Addition of various combinations of novel markers to the base model (c-statistic =0.711), showed improvements in discrimination of approximately only 0.005 each (c-statistics 0.7158, 0.7160 and 0.7164) for the best-fit models. All 3 best-fit novel-marker models calibrated well but were similar to the base model in predicting individual risk probabilities for CAC progression. The highest prevalence of CAC progression occurred in the highest compared to the lowest probability quartile groups (39.2–40.3% versus 6.4–7.1%).

Conclusions

In individuals at low predicted risk by FRS, traditional RFs predicted CAC progression in the short term with good discrimination and calibration. Prediction improved minimally when various novel markers were added to the model.

Background

We assessed the association between sleep apnea, snoring, incident cardiovascular (CV) events and all-cause mortality in the Multi Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort.

Methods

Out of 5338 respondents to a sleep questionnaire administered during the second MESA exam period, 208 had physician-diagnosed sleep apnea (PDSA), 1452 were habitual snorers (HS) and 3678 were neither a habitual snorer nor had PDSA (normal participants). Cox proportional hazard analysis was used to assess the associations adjusting for age, gender, race/ethnicity, smoking, diabetes mellitus, total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, BMI, current alcohol use, benzodiazepine use, BP medications and statin use.

Results

Over a 7.5 year average follow-up period, 310 adjudicated CV events including MI, stroke, angina, resuscitated cardiac arrest, stroke death and CVD death and 189 deaths occurred. Compared to HS, PDSA was associated with higher incident CV rates in both univariate and multivariable models [hazard ratio (95%); 1.89(1.22–2.93), p=0.004 and 1.91(1.20 –3.04), p=0.007 respectively]. PDSA was also associated with a higher death rates compared with HS [hazard ratio (95%); 2.13(1.25 – 3.63), p=0.006 and 2.70(1.52– 4.79), p=0.007 respectively]. Compared with normal participants, PDSA had higher incident CV event rates in both univariate and multivariable models [hazard ratio (95%); 2.23[1.39–3.60], p=0.001 and 2.16[1.30–3.58], p=0.003 respectively]. Similarly, PDSA had a higher death rate compared with normal participants in both the univariate and multivariable models [hazard ratio (95%CI); 2.44(1.36 – 4.37), p=0.003 and 2.71(1.45 – 5.08), p=0.002 respectively]. Habitual snorers had similar incident CV event rates and death rates in both univariate and multivariable models compared with normal participants.

Conclusion

PDSA but not habitual snoring was associated with high incident CV events and all-cause mortality in a multi-ethnic population based study of adults free of clinical CV disease at baseline.

Objective

To assess the cardiovascular risk of impaired fasting glucose (IFG).

Background

The association between IFG, incident type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular (CV) events remains unclear.

Methods

The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) included participants aged 45–84 free of clinical CV disease at baseline (2000–2002). T2DM was defined as fasting glucose >125mg/dl or anti-diabetes medication at baseline and follow-up exams, IFG as no T2DM and fasting glucose 100–125.mg/dl. Cox proportional hazard analysis was used to assess the association between IFG and incident DM and also with incident CV events.

Results

Of 6753 participants included in these analyses 840 (12.7%) had T2DM, 940 (13.8%) had IFG at the baseline exam. During 7.5 years of follow-up there were 418 adjudicated CV events. T2DM was associated with an increased CV incidence in the univariate [hazard ratio (HR); 2.83(2.25–3.56), p<0.0001] and multivariable models (adjusted for demographics and traditional risk factors) [HR; 1.87(1.47 – 2.37), p<0.0001] compared with subjects without T2DM (IFG + NFG). IFG was associated with increased incidence of T2DM [HR; 13.2 (95%CI 10.8–16.2), p<0.001] that remained after adjusting for demographics, highest educational level, physical activity and BMI [HR; 10.5(8.4–13.1), p<0.001] compared to NFG. IFG was associated with incident CV events in the univariate [HR; 1.64(1.26 – 2.14), p=<0.001] but not in the full multivariable model [HR; 1.16(95% CI 0.88–1.52), p=0.3] compared with NFG.

Conclusion

Having IFG was not independently associated with an increased short-term risk for incident CV events. These data reiterate the importance of intervention in persons with IFG to reduce their incidence of T2DM.

The prevalence of hypertension is higher among African-Americans than whites. However, inconsistent findings have been reported on the incidence of hypertension among middle-aged and older African-Americans and whites and limited data are available on the incidence of hypertension among Hispanics and Asians in the US. Therefore, this study investigated the age-specific incidence of hypertension by ethnicity for 3,146 participants from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Participants, age 45–84 years at baseline, were followed for a median of 4.8 years for incident hypertension, defined as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg, or the initiation of antihypertensive medications. The crude incidence rate of hypertension, per 1,000 person-years, was 56.8 for whites, 84.9 for African-Americans, 65.7 for Hispanics, and 52.2 for Chinese. After adjustment for age, gender, and study site, the incidence rate ratio (IRR) for hypertension was increased for African-Americans age 45–54 (IRR=2.05, 95% CI=1.47, 2.85), 55–64 (IRR=1.63, 95% CI=1.20, 2.23), and 65–74 years (IRR=1.67, 95% CI=1.21, 2.30) compared with whites, but not for those 75–84 years of age (IRR=0.97, 95% CI=0.56, 1.66). Additional adjustment for health characteristics attenuated these associations. Hispanic participants also had a higher incidence of hypertension compared with whites; however, hypertension incidence did not differ for Chinese and white participants. In summary, hypertension incidence was higher for African-Americans compared with whites between 45 and 74 years of age but not after age 75 years. Public health prevention programs tailored to middle-age and older adults are needed to eliminate ethnic disparities in incident hypertension.

Background and Purpose

We hypothesized that retinal microvascular signs are associated with executive dysfunction, slow gait, and depressive mood that are characteristic features of microvascular disease affecting frontal subcortical regions of the brain.

Methods

In the Cardiovascular Health Study, 1744 participants (mean age 78) free of stroke had retinal photographs and carotid ultrasound during the 1997–1998 visit. We examined the cross-sectional association of retinal signs with the digit-symbol substitution test (DSST) score, gait speed, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies – Depression (CES-D) score, and depressive mood, defined as CES-D score > 9 or antidepressant use.

Results

After adjusting for potential confounders, retinal signs were associated with lower DSST score (generalized arteriolar narrowing and arteriovenous nicking), slower gait (retinopathy), and depressive mood (generalized arteriolar narrowing). A higher number of retinal signs was associated with lower DSST score (−0.76 and −2.79 points for 1 sign and ≥ 2 signs versus none; P < 0.001) and slower gait (−0.009 and −0.083 m/sec; P = 0.047), but not with the square root of CES-D score (0.079 and −0.208; P = 0.072). In addition, coexistence of retinal signs (generalized arteriolar narrowing and arteriovenous nicking) and carotid atherosclerosis was associated with lower DSST score compared with either process alone (P for interaction < 0.01). Notably, further adjustment for ventricular size, white matter disease, and infarcts on magnetic resonance imaging did not attenuate the association.

Conclusions

Retinal signs are associated with executive dysfunction and slow gait, and possibly with depressive mood, suggesting a common process involving small vessels.

Objectives

By examining the distribution of CAC across FRS strata in a large, multi-ethnic, community-based sample of men and women, we sought to determine if lower risk persons could potentially benefit from CAC screening.

Background

The 10-year Framingham risk scores (FRS) and coronary artery calcium (CAC) are predictors of coronary heart disease (CHD). CAC ≥300 is associated with the highest risk for CHD even in low risk (FRS <10%) persons; however expert groups have suggested CAC screening only in intermediate risk (FRS 10–20%) groups.

Methods

We included 5660 MESA participants. The number needed to screen [number of people that need to be screened to detect one person with CAC above the specified cut-point (NNS)] was used to assess the yield of screening for CAC. CAC prevalence was compared across FRS strata using chi-square tests.

Results

CAC >0, ≥100 and ≥300 were present in 46.4%, 20.6% and 10.1% of participants, respectively. Prevalence and amount of CAC increased with higher FRS. CAC ≥300 was observed in 1.7% and 4.4% of those with FRS 0–2.5% and 2.6–5%, respectively (NNS =59.7 and 22.7). Likewise, CAC ≥300 was observed in 24% and 30% of those with FRS 15.1–20% and >20%, respectively (NNS =4.2 and 3.3). Trends were similar when stratified by age, gender and race/ethnicity.

Conclusions

Our study suggests that in very low risk individuals (FRS ≤5%), the yield of screening and probability of identifying persons with clinically significant levels of CAC is low, but becomes greater in low and intermediate risk persons (FRS 5.1–20%).

Background

Alcohol use has been consistently found to have a J-shaped association with coronary heart disease, with moderate drinkers exhibiting a decreased risk compared to both heavy drinkers and non-drinkers. However, studies of the association between alcohol use and subclinical coronary artery disease have conflicted.

Objective

To determine whether alcohol is associated with the presence, amount, or progression of coronary calcium over a 2- to 4-year period.

Design

MESA is a prospective community-based cohort study of subclinical cardiovascular disease in a multi-ethnic cohort. In 2000–2002, 6814 participants free of clinical cardiovascular disease were enrolled at 6 participating centers.

Results

There were 3766 (55.5%) current drinkers, 1635 (24.1%) former drinkers, and 1390 (20.5%) never drinkers included in the analysis. Although light to moderate alcohol consumption was associated with lower coronary heart disease risk, we found no evidence of a protective or J-shaped association of alcohol and coronary artery calcium (CAC). In fact there was evidence that heavy consumption of hard liquor was associated with greater CAC accumulation. Other alcoholic beverages were not associated with CAC prevalence, incidence or progression.

Conclusions

This is the first large study to evaluate the association of alcohol and coronary artery calcium in four racial/ethnic groups, and to evaluate progression of calcification. These results suggest that the cardiovascular benefits that may be derived from light to moderate alcohol consumption are not mediated through reduced CAC accumulation.

Background

Excessive non-subcutaneous fat deposition may impair the functions of surrounding tissues and organs through the release of inflammatory cytokines and free fatty acids.

Objective

We examined the cross-sectional association between non-subcutaneous adiposity and calcified coronary plaque, a non-invasive measure of coronary artery disease burden.

Design

Participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis underwent CT assessment of calcified coronary plaque. We measured multiple fat depots in 398 white and black participants (47% men and 43% black), ages 47–86 years, from Forsyth County, NC during 2002–2005, using cardiac and abdominal CT scans. In addition to examining each depot separately, we also created a non-subcutaneous fat index using the standard scores of non-subcutaneous fat depots.

Results

A total of 219 participants (55%) were found to have calcified coronary plaque. After adjusting for demographics, lifestyle factors and height, calcified coronary plaque was associated with a one standard deviation increment in the non-subcutaneous fat index (OR = 1.41; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.84), pericardial fat (OR = 1.38; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.84), abdominal visceral fat (OR = 1.35; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.76), but not with fat content in the liver, intermuscular fat, or abdominal subcutaneous fat. The relation between non-subcutaneous fat index and calcified coronary plaque remained after further adjustment for abdominal subcutaneous fat (OR = 1.40; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.94). The relation did not differ by gender and ethnicity.

Conclusions

The overall burden of non-subcutaneous fat deposition, but not abdominal subcutaneous fat, may be a correlate of coronary atherosclerosis.

In 2002 the United States Preventive Services Task Force and the American Heart Association recommended aspirin for the primary prevention of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) in individuals with a Framingham risk score ≥ 6% or ≥ 10%, respectively. The regular use of aspirin (≥ 3 days per week) was examined in a cohort of 6452 White, Black, Hispanic, and Chinese individuals without cardiovascular disease in 2000-2002 and 5181 individuals from the same cohort in 2005-2007. Framingham risk scores were stratified into low (< 6%), increased (6% to 9.9%), and high risk (≥ 10%). In 2000-2002 the prevalence of aspirin use was 18% and 27% for those at increased and high risk, respectively. Whites (25%) used aspirin more than Blacks (14%), Hispanics (12%), or Chinese (14%) (P < 0.001) in the increased risk group. Corresponding prevalences for the high risk group were 38%, 25%, 17%, and 21%, respectively (P < 0.001). In 2005-2007 the prevalence of aspirin use was 31% and 44% for those at increased and high risk, respectively. Whites (41%) used aspirin more than Blacks (27%), Hispanics (24%), or Chinese (15%) in the increased risk group (P < 0.001). Corresponding prevalences for the high risk group were 53%, 43%, 38%, and 28%, respectively (P < 0.001). Racial/ethnic differences persisted after adjustment for age, gender, diabetes, income, and education. In conclusion, regular aspirin use in adults at increased and high risk for CHD remains suboptimal. Important racial/ethnic disparities exist for unclear reasons.

Background

Coronary artery calcium (CAC), carotid intima-media thickness, and left ventricular (LV) mass and geometry offer the potential to characterize incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in clinically asymptomatic individuals. The objective of the study was to compare these cardiovascular imaging measures for their overall and sex-specific ability to predict CVD.

Methods and Results

The study sample consisted of 4965 Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis participants (48% men; mean age, 62±10 years). They were free of CVD at baseline and were followed for a median of 5.8 years. There were 297 CVD events, including 187 coronary heart disease (CHD) events, 65 strokes, and 91 heart failure (HF) events. CAC was most strongly associated with CHD (hazard ratio [HR], 2.3 per 1 SD; 95% CI, 1.9 to 2.8) and all CVD events (HR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.5 to 1.9). Most strongly associated with stroke were LV mass (HR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1 to 1.7) and LV mass/volume ratio (HR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1 to 1.6). LV mass showed the strongest association with HF (HR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.6 to 2.1). There were no significant interactions for imaging measures with sex and ethnicity for any CVD outcome. Compared with traditional risk factors alone, overall risk prediction (C statistic) for future CHD, HF, and all CVD was significantly improved by adding CAC, LV mass, and CAC, respectively (all P<0.05).

Conclusions

There was no evidence that imaging measures differed in association with incident CVD by sex. CAC was most strongly associated with CHD and CVD; LV mass and LV concentric remodeling best predicted stroke; and LV mass best predicted HF.

Background

Pericardial fat has adverse effects on the surrounding vasculature. Previous studies suggest that pericardial fat may contribute to myocardial ischemia in symptomatic individuals. However, it is unknown if pericardial fat has similar effects in asymptomatic individuals.

Methods

We determined the association between pericardial fat and myocardial blood flow (MBF) in 214 adults with no prior history of cardiovascular disease from the Minnesota field center of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (43% female, 56% Caucasian, 44% Hispanic). Pericardial fat volume was measured by computed tomography. MBF was measured by MRI at rest and during adenosine-induced hyperemia. Myocardial perfusion reserve (PR) was calculated as the ratio of hyperemic to resting MBF.

Results

Gender-stratified analyses revealed significant differences between men and women including less pericardial fat (71.9±31.3 vs. 105.2±57.5 cm3, p<0.0001) and higher resting MBF (1.12±0.23 vs. 0.93±0.19 ml/min/g, p<0.0001), hyperemic MBF (3.49±0.76 vs. 2.65±0.72 ml/min/g, p<0.0001), and PR (3.19±0.78 vs. 2.93±0.89, p = 0.03) in women. Correlations between pericardial fat and clinical and hemodynamic variables were stronger in women. In women only (p = 0.01 for gender interaction) higher pericardial fat was associated with higher resting MBF (p = 0.008). However, this association was attenuated after accounting for body mass index or rate-pressure product. There were no significant associations between pericardial fat and hyperemic MBF or PR after multivariate adjustment in either gender. In logistic regression analyses there was also no association between impaired coronary vasoreactivity, defined as having a PR <2.5, and pericardial fat in men (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.82–1.70) or women (OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 0.68–1.82).

Conclusions

Our data fail to support an independent association between pericardial fat and myocardial perfusion in adults without symptomatic cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, these findings highlight potentially important differences between asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals with respect to the underlying subclinical disease burden.

Background

We sought to validate a recently published risk algorithm for incident atrial fibrillation (AF) in independent cohorts and other race/ethnic groups.

Methods

We evaluated the performance of a Framingham Heart Study (FHS)-derived risk algorithm modified for 5-year incidence of AF in the FHS (n=4764 participants) and two geographically and ethnically diverse cohorts: AGES (Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility-Reykjavik Study, n=4238), and CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study, n=5410 of whom 874 (16.2%) were African Americans (AA)); aged 45–95 years. The risk algorithm included age, sex, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, electrocardiographic PR-interval, hypertension treatment, and heart failure.

Results

We observed 1359 incident AF events in 100,074 person-years of follow-up. Unadjusted five-year event-rates differed by cohort (AGES 12.8 cases/1000 person-years; CHS whites 22.7 cases/1000 person-years; FHS 4.5 cases/1000 person-years) and race/ethnicity (CHS AA 18.4 cases/1000 person-years).

The strongest risk factors in all samples were age and heart failure. The relative risks for incident AF associated with risk factors were comparable across cohorts and race groups. After recalibration for baseline incidence and risk factor distribution, the Framingham algorithm performed reasonably well in all samples (AGES C-statistic 0.67, 95% confidence interval 0.64–0.71; CHS whites, 0.68, 0.66–0.70; CHS AA 0.66, 0.61–0.71). Risk factors combined in the algorithm explained between 47.0% (AGES) and 63.6% (FHS) of the population attributable risk.

Conclusions

Risk of incident AF in community-dwelling whites and AA can be assessed reliably by routinely available and potentially modifiable clinical variables. Seven risk factors accounted for up to 64% percent of risk.

OBJECTIVE

Many studies have documented associations between inflammation and type 2 diabetes incidence. We assessed potential variability in this association in the major U.S. racial/ethnic groups.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Incident type 2 diabetes was assessed among men and women aged 45–84 years without prior clinical cardiovascular disease or diabetes in the prospective Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Interleukin (IL)-6, fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured at baseline (2000–2002); fasting glucose and diabetes medication use was assessed at baseline and three subsequent in-person exams through 2007. Type 2 diabetes was defined as use of diabetes drugs or glucose ≥126 mg/dl. Covariates included baseline demographics, clinic, smoking, alcohol, exercise, hypertension medication, systolic blood pressure, insulin resistance, and BMI. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) by quartiles of CRP, IL-6, and fibrinogen.

RESULTS

Among 5,571 participants (mean age 61.6 years, 53% female, 42.1% white, 11.5% Chinese, 25.7% black, and 20.7% Hispanic), 410 developed incident diabetes during a median follow-up time of 4.7 years (incidence 16.8 per 1,000 person-years). CRP, IL-6, and fibrinogen levels were associated with incident diabetes in the entire sample. After adjustment, the associations were attenuated; however, quartile 4 (versus quartile 1) of IL-6 (HR 1.5 [95% CI 1.1–2.2]) and CRP (1.7 [1.3–2.4]) remained associated with incident diabetes. In stratified analyses, similar associations were observed among white, black, and Hispanic participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher levels of inflammation predict short-term incidence of type 2 diabetes in a multiethnic American sample.

Objectives

High plasma sphingomyelin level has been associated with subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease and worse prognosis in subjects with acute coronary syndromes. We assess the predictive value of plasma sphingomyelin levels for incident CHD events in the Multi Ethnic Study of atherosclerosis (MESA).

Method and Results

Plasma sphingomyelin was measured in 6809 out of 6814 subjects with mean age 62.2 ± 10.2 years, participating in the MESA study, a population based cohort study of adults free of clinical CVD at baseline recruited at six clinic sites in USA. The subjects consisted of 52.8% females, 38.5% Caucasian, 11.8% Chinese, 27.8% African Americans and 21.9% Hispanics. Cox proportional hazard analysis was used to examine the association between plasma sphingomyelin and five years of adjudicated incident CHD events including MI, resuscitated cardiac arrest, angina, CHD death and revascularization (CABG or PTCA). Mean (SD) plasma sphingomyelin level was 48 mg/dl (16.0). One hundred and eighty-nine subjects had an adjudicated CHD event during the five years of follow up. In the Kaplan meier analysis, subjects with plasma sphingomyelin level above the sex specific median had similar event free survival rate compared with subjects with plasma sphingomyelin level below or equal to the sex specific median (97.16% vs 97.0%, log rank p= 0.713). In the univariate Cox proportional hazard analysis, plasma sphingomyelin was not a predictor of incident CHD event [hazard ratio 0.992(0.982 – 1.004), p=0.09]. In our multistage multivariable Cox models, higher plasma sphingomyelin had modest negative association with incident CHD events when total cholesterol, HDL and triglycerides were included in the model [hazard ratio 0.985 (0.973 – 0.996), p=0.008] and also in our full model after adjusting for age, gender, total cholesterol, HDL, triglycerides, diabetes, cigarette smoking, systolic BP, diastolic BP, BP medication use, HMG CoA use [hazard ratio 0.984 (0.973 – 0.996), p=0.002]. In other models, plasma sphingomyelin was not associated with incident CHD events.

Conclusion

High plasma sphingomyelin level is not associated with increased risk of incident coronary heart disease in population based adults free of clinical cardiovascular disease at baseline.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship of left ventricular (LV) remodeling assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance to various measures of obesity in a large population-based study.

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a well-known risk factor for cardiovascular disease, yet its relationship with LV size and function is poorly understood.

METHODS

A total of 5,098 participants (age 45 to 84 years; 48% men) in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis who were free of clinically apparent cardiovascular disease underwent cardiac magnetic resonance to assess LV size and function as well as measures of obesity, including body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio and waist circumference, and cardiovascular risk factors. Fat mass (FM) was estimated based on height-weight models derived from bioelectrical impedance studies. The associations of obesity measures with LV size and function were evaluated using linear spline regression models for body mass index and multivariable regression models for other measures of obesity; they were displayed graphically using generalized additive models.

RESULTS

LV mass and end-diastolic volume were positively associated with measures of obesity in both sexes after adjustment for risk factors (e.g., 5.7-g and 6.9-g increase in LV mass per 10-kg increase in FM in women and men, respectively [p < 0.001]). LV mass-to-volume ratio was positively associated with increased body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, waist circumference, and estimated FM (e.g., 0.02-g/ml and 0.06-g/ml increase in mass-to-volume ratio per 10-kg increase in FM in women and men, respectively [p < 0.001]). The increased mass-to-volume ratio was due to a greater increase in LV mass relative to LV end-diastolic volume. All associations were stronger for men than for women. Ejection fraction showed no significant association with measures of obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

Obesity was associated with concentric LV remodeling without change in ejection fraction in a large, multiethnic cohort study.

Background

The relationship between incident congestive heart failure (CHF) and ethnicity as well as racial/ethnic differences in the mechanisms leading to CHF have not been demonstrated in a multiracial, population-based study. Our objective was to evaluate the relationship between race/ethnicity and incident CHF.

Methods

The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) is a cohort study of 6814 participants of 4 ethnicities: white (38.5%), African American (27.8%), Hispanic (21.9%), and Chinese American (11.8%). Participants with a history of cardiovascular disease at baseline were excluded. Cox proportional hazards models were used for data analysis.

Results

During a median follow-up of 4.0 years, 79 participants developed CHF (incidence rate: 3.1 per 1000 person-years). African Americans had the highest incidence rate of CHF, followed by Hispanic, white, and Chinese American participants (incidence rates: 4.6, 3.5, 2.4, and 1.0 per 1000 person-years, respectively). Although risk of developing CHF was higher among African American compared with white participants (hazard ratio, 1.8; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-3.1), adding hypertension and/or diabetes mellitus to models including ethnicity eliminated statistical ethnic differences in incident CHF. Moreover, African Americans had the highest proportion of incident CHF not preceded by clinical myocardial infarction (75%) compared with other ethnic groups (P = .06).

Conclusions

The higher risk of incident CHF among African Americans was related to differences in the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus as well as socioeconomic status. The mechanisms of CHF also differed by ethnicity; interim myocardial infarction had the least influence among African Americans, and left ventricular mass increase had the greatest effect among Hispanic and white participants.

Context

Coronary artery calcium score (CACS) has been shown to predict future coronary heart disease (CHD) events. However, the extent to which adding CACS to traditional CHD risk factors improves classification of risk is unclear.

Objective

To determine whether adding CACS to a prediction model based on traditional risk factors improves classification of risk.

Design, Setting and Participants

CACS was measured by computed tomography on 6,814 participants from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), a population-based cohort without known cardiovascular disease. Recruitment spanned July 2000 to September 2002; follow-up extended through May 2008. Participants with diabetes were excluded for the primary analysis. Five-year risk estimates for incident CHD were categorized as 0-<3%, 3-<10%, and ≥10% using Cox proportional hazards models. Model 1 used age, gender, tobacco use, systolic blood pressure, antihypertensive medication use, total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and race/ethnicity. Model 2 used these risk factors plus CACS. We calculated the net reclassification improvement (NRI) and compared the distribution of risk using Model 2 versus Model 1.

Main Outcome Measures

Incident CHD events

Results

Over 5.8 years median follow-up, 209 CHD events occurred, of which 122 were myocardial infarction, death from CHD, or resuscitated cardiac arrest. Model 2 resulted in significant improvements in risk prediction compared to Model 1 (NRI=0.25, 95% confidence interval 0.16-0.34, P<0.001). With Model 1, 69% of the cohort was classified in the highest or lowest risk categories, compared to 77% with Model 2. An additional 23% of those who experienced events were reclassified to high risk, and an additional 13% without events were reclassified to low risk using Model 2.

Conclusions

In the MESA cohort, addition of CACS to a prediction model based on traditional risk factors significantly improved the classification of risk and placed more individuals in the most extreme risk categories.

Though abnormal lipoproteins and lipoprotein ratios are powerful risk factors for clinical cardiovascular (CV) events, these associations are stronger in younger compared to older age. Whether age modifies the relationships of lipoproteins and lipoprotein ratios to the relative risk for subclinical CV disease (CVD), as assessed by coronary artery calcium (CAC) scores, has not been examined in a contemporary, multi-ethnic cohort. We performed multivariate relative risk regression to determine the relative risks (RRs) for associations of lipoproteins and lipoprotein ratios with prevalent CAC in participants in MESA. Participants were community-dwelling adults ages 45–84 years without baseline clinically apparent CVD. We excluded those on lipid lowering therapy (15%), and stratified results by decades of age. 5,092 participants met inclusion criteria. In fully adjusted models, per standard deviation (SD) of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), age-stratified, adjusted relative risks (RRs) for CAC were 1.17 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.07–1.28) for those aged 45–54 but 1.05 (95% CI 1.01–1.10) for those aged 75–84 (p-interaction = 0.12). The RR per SD of Total/HDL cholesterol ratio was 1.20 (95% CI 1.12–1.29) for those aged 45–54 but only 1.04 (1.00–1.09) for those aged 75–84 (p-interaction <0.001). Lipoproteins and lipoprotein ratios were associated with increased RRs for CAC across all age categories. However, these associations were markedly attenuated by age. In conclusion, abnormal lipoproteins in middle age are a powerful risk factor for early atherosclerosis as manifested by prevalent CAC.

Background

Few cohort studies have adequate numbers of carefully reviewed deaths to allow an analysis of unique and shared risk factors for cause-specific mortality. Shared risk factors could be targeted for prevention of premature death and the study of longevity.

Methods

A total of 5,888 community-dwelling persons aged 65 years or older living in four communities in the United States participated in the Cardiovascular Health Study cohort. Participants were initially recruited from 1989 to 1990; an additional 687 black participants were recruited in 1992–1993. The average length of follow-up was 16 years. Total and cause-specific mortality, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, cancer, dementia, pulmonary disease, infection, and other cause, were examined as outcomes. Variables previously associated with total mortality were examined for each cause of death using Cox proportional hazard models.

Results

Multiple risk factors were related to total mortality. When examining specific causes, many factors were related to cardiovascular death, whereas fewer were related to other causes. For most causes, risk factors were specific for that cause. For example, apolipoprotein E ϵ4 was strongly associated for dementia death and forced vital capacity with pulmonary death. Age, male sex, markers of inflammation, and cognitive function were related to multiple causes of death.

Conclusions

In these older adults, associations of risk factors with a given cause of death were related to specific deficits in that same organ system. Inflammation may represent a common pathway to all causes of death.

PURPOSE

To assess the relationship between sibling history of myocardial infarction (MI) or stroke with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and risk factors in older adults.

METHODS

Prospective cohort study of 5,888 older adults participating to the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS). History of MI and stroke in siblings was obtained by self-report. Participants with positive sibling histories were compared to those with negative histories to determine if prevalent or incident disease (coronary heart disease [CHD], MI, stroke, angina), subclinical CVD (carotid wall thickness, left ventricular mass, hypertension, diabetes, ankle brachial index), CVD risk factors differed between groups.

RESULTS

More than 91 percent (n=5,383) of CHS participants reported at least one sibling. Sibling history of MI was associated with increased disease prevalence (CHD, MI, angina) and incidence (CHD, angina). Sibling history of stroke was associated with increased disease prevalence (CHD, angina). Sibling history of either MI or stroke was associated with increased disease prevalence and incidence for CHD, MI and angina, more subclinical disease, and a higher CVD risk profile.

CONCLUSIONS

Sibling history of MI and stroke were markers of higher CVD risk status even in older adults. Of clinical importance, participants with positive sibling history have numerous risk factors amenable to intervention.

Background

Accumulating evidence suggests that ginkgo biloba is cardioprotective, in part, through its vasodilatory and antihypertensive properties. However, definitive data on its blood pressure-lowering effects in humans is lacking.

Methods

We determined the effects of ginkgo biloba extract (240 mg/day) on blood pressure and incident hypertension in 3,069 participants (mean age, 79 yrs; 46% female; 96% White) from the Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory study. We also examined whether the treatment effects are modified by baseline hypertension status.

Results

At baseline 54% of the study participants were hypertensive, 28% were pre-hypertensive, and 17% were normotensive. Over a median follow-up of 6.1 years, there were similar changes in blood pressure and pulse pressure in the ginkgo biloba and placebo groups. Although baseline hypertension status did not modify the antihypertensive effects of ginkgo biloba, it did influence the changes in blood pressure variables observed during follow-up, with decreases in hypertensives, increases in normotensives, and no changes in pre-hypertensives. Among participants who were not on antihypertensive medications at baseline, there was no difference between treatment groups in medication use over time, as the OR (95% CI) for being a never-user in the ginkgo biloba group was 0.75 (0.48–1.16). The rate of incident hypertension also did not differ between participants assigned to ginkgo biloba vs. placebo (HR, 0.99, 95% CI, 0.84–1.15).

Conclusions

Our data indicate that ginkgo biloba does not reduce blood pressure or the incidence of hypertension in elderly men and women.

Purpose

To evaluate vasomotor symptoms and soy and hormone therapy use in women who had previously participated in the Soy Estrogen Alternative (SEA) study, a trial conducted to compare the effects of soy protein supplements containing differing levels of isoflavones on menopausal symptoms, chronic disease risk factors, and health-related quality of life in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women.

Participants and methods

Two years after the SEA study ended participants were recontacted to complete questionnaires to quantify their health status, medications, menopausal symptoms, and their use of hormone therapy and soy-based foods and supplements. Participants were also asked to record vasomotor symptoms for seven days.

Results

Surveys were collected from 182 of the 241 participants who had been enrolled in the SEA study (76% response rate). Women were 55 ± 2.8 years of age, well educated (80% more than high school), and 93% reported good to excellent health. All but six reported experiencing at least one menopausal symptom, and 56% reported one or more hot flashes on one or more days. Eighty-one women (45%) continued to use soy for menopausal symptom relief, and 58 (32%) were using hormone therapy. Women taking hormone therapy were experiencing fewer and less severe hot flashes than those who were not taking hormone therapy (P < 0.001); hot flash frequency and severity did not differ significantly between those who did and did not use soy, after controlling for hormone therapy use.

Conclusion

Most participants reported they were still experiencing menopausal symptoms. Additionally, half of the most symptomatic women (not taking hormone therapy) were still consuming soy products for vasomotor symptoms.

Objective

To describe the relationship of systemic inflammatory disease, complement factor H (CFH) Y402H (1277T→C) genotype status and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) prevalence in a multiethnic population of whites, blacks, Hispanics, and Chinese.

Design

Population-based, cross-sectional study.

Participants

We included 5887 persons aged 45 to 84 years with gradable AMD.

Methods

Digital fundus photographs were used to measure AMD. Two years earlier, biomarkers of inflammation were measured and history of inflammatory disease and use of antiinflammatory agents obtained.

Main Outcome Measure

Prevalence of AMD.

Results

While controlling for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and study site, there were no associations between systemic inflammatory factors and AMD severity. Higher levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (odds ratio [OR] per standard deviation [SD] increase in natural log [ln] units, 2.34; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33–4.13) and interleukin-6 (OR per SD in ln, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.21–3.49) were associated with geographic atrophy but not other AMD end points. History of periodontal disease (OR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.14–2.47) was related to increased retinal pigment. A history of arthritis was associated with soft distinct drusen (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.06–1.46). A history of oral steroid use was related to large drusen (OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.14–3.97) and soft distinct drusen (OR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.00–3.10) and history of cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor use were associated with large drusen (OR, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.10–2.04), soft indistinct drusen (OR, 1.84; 95% CI, 1.09–3.10), and large drusen area (OR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.02–2.71). Whites, blacks, and Hispanics with CFH Y402H CC variant genotype had the highest frequency of early AMD compared with those with wild TT genotype. The frequency of CFH did explain some of the difference in AMD prevalence between Chinese and Hispanics compared with whites, but did not explain the difference in prevalence between whites and blacks.

Conclusions

This study confirmed associations of the Y402H CFH gene variant with AMD in nonwhite populations, but neither explained the lack of association between inflammatory factors and AMD in the cohort nor the basis for the observed differences in AMD prevalence across ethnic groups.

Coronary artery calcium (CAC), carotid intimal medial thickness (cIMT), and reduced ankle brachial indices (ABI) are markers of subclinical vascular disease strongly associated with aging. We identified factors associated with low levels of subclinical vascular disease in 1824 participants ≥70 years in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. 452 had low CAC (<25th percentile), 441 had low cIMT (<25th percentile), 1636 had normal ABI (>0.9), and 165 had a combination index indicating favorable values for all three parameters. This combination index was independently associated with younger age [OR=2.5 per 1 SD (95%CI 1.8–3.6)], female gender [OR=3.0(1.9–4.8)], lower BMI [OR=1.6 per 1 SD (1.2–2.0)], absence of hypertension [OR=1.8(1.2–2.6)], absence of dyslipidemia [OR=1.6 (1.04–2.4)], and never smoking [OR=1.7(1.1–2.6)]. No significant associations were observed for C-reactive protein, education, diet, or physical activity. Favorable levels of multiple traditional risk factors, but not several novel risk factors, were associated with subclinical markers of successful cardiovascular aging.