Objective

To estimate the prevalence, incidence, and clearance of abnormal vaginal cytology and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive women.

Methods

Pap tests were done semiannually for 335 HIV-seropositive and 75 HIV-seronegative women with prior hysterectomy in the prospective Women’s Interagency HIV Study cohort. Endpoints included abnormal Pap tests after hysterectomy and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia regardless of hysterectomy.

Results

Over a median of 5.6 years of follow-up, vaginal Pap tests were abnormal at 1,076 (29%, 95% C.I. 25%, 33%) of 3,700 visits among HIV seropositive vs. 31 (4%, 95% C.I. 2%, 8%) of 763 visits among seronegative women (P < 0.001). Abnormal Pap tests included 641 atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US), 425 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), and 10 high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions in HIV-seropositive women, and 28 ASC-US and three LSIL in HIV-seronegative women. The incidence of abnormal Pap tests after hysterectomy was 14/100 person-years among HIV-seropositive and 2/100 person-years among HIV-seronegative women (P < 0.001) and remained stable across time. The 5-year clearance rate of abnormal Pap tests was 34/100 person-years for HIV-seropositive and 116/100 person-years for HIV-seronegative women (P < 0.001). In multivariate regression models, women with lower CD4 counts were more likely to have and less likely to clear abnormal cytology when it occurred. The incidence of vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia 2+ was 0.2 and 0.01 per 100 person-years for HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative women (P = 0.001). Two HIV-seropositive women developed Stage II cancers, with remission after radiotherapy.

Conclusion

Vaginal Pap tests are often abnormal in HIV-seropositive women. Though more common than in HIV-seronegative women, vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia 2+ and especially vaginal cancers are infrequent.

Context

U.S. cervical cancer screening guidelines for HIV-uninfected women 30 years of age and older have recently been revised, increasing the suggested interval between Pap tests from three years to five years among those with normal cervical cytology (the Pap test) who test negative for oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV). Whether a three-year or five-year screening interval might be used in HIV-infected women who are cytologically normal and oncogenic HPV-negative is unknown.

Objective

To determine the risk of cervical pre-cancer or cancer defined cytologically (high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions or greater [HSIL+]) or histologically (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2 or greater [CIN-2+]), as two separate endpoints, in HIV-infected women and HIV-uninfected women who at baseline had a normal Pap test and were negative for oncogenic HPV.

Design, Setting and Participants

Participants included 420 HIV-infected women and 279 HIV-uninfected women with normal cervical cytology at their enrollment in a multi-institutional cohort, between October 1, 2001 and September 30, 2002, with follow-up through April 30, 2011. Clinical sites were in the Bronx, Brooklyn, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Washington, DC. Semi-annual visits included Pap testing and, if indicated, cervical biopsy. Cervicovaginal lavage specimens from enrollment were tested for HPV DNA using PCR. The primary analysis was truncated at five years of follow-up.

Main Outcome Measure

The five-year cumulative incidence of cervical pre-cancer and cancer.

Results

No oncogenic HPV was detected in 369 (88%; 95% CI, 84%-91%) of the HIV-infected women and 255 (91%; 95% CI, 88%-94%) of the HIV-uninfected women with normal cervical cytology at enrollment. Among these oncogenic HPV-negative women two cases of HSIL+ were observed; an HIV-uninfected woman and an HIV-infected woman with a CD4 cell count of 500/μL or greater. Histologic data were obtained from four of the six sites. There were six cases of CIN-2+ in N=145 HIV-uninfected women (cumulative incidence = 5% [95% CI, 1%-8%]) and nine cases in N=219 HIV-infected women (cumulative incidence = 5% [95% CI, 2%-8%]). This included one case of CIN-2+ in N=44 oncogenic HPV-negative HIV-infected women with CD4 cell counts less than 350/μL (cumulative incidence = 2% [95% CI, 0%-7%]), one case in N=47 women with CD4 cell counts of 350 to 499/μL (cumulative incidence = 2% [95% CI, 0%-7%]), and seven cases in N=128 women with CD4 cell counts of 500/μL or greater (cumulative incidence = 6% [95% CI, 2%-10%]). One HIV-infected and one HIV-uninfected woman had CIN-3, but none had cancer.

Conclusion

The five-year cumulative incidence of HSIL+ and CIN-2+ was similar in HIV-infected women and HIV-uninfected women who were cytologically normal and oncogenic HPV-negative at enrollment.

The immune response of patients who have cancer, who may be receiving immunosuppressive therapy, is generally considered to be decreased. This study aimed to evaluate the immune response of cancer patients to the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) vaccine. Cancer patients, whether taking myelosuppressive chemotherapy or not, are able to generate an immune response to the H1N1 vaccine similar to that of healthy controls.

Learning Objectives

After completing this course, the reader will be able to: Cite the primary concerns of oncologists regarding influenza vaccination for their cancer patients.Describe research showing that cancer patients, whether taking myelosuppressive chemotherapy or not, are able to generate an immune response to the H1N1 vaccine similar to that of healthy controls.

This article is available for continuing medical education credit at CME.TheOncologist.com

Background.

The immune response of patients who have cancer, who may be receiving immunosuppressive therapy, is generally considered to be decreased. This study aimed to evaluate the immune response of cancer patients to the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) vaccine.

Patients and Methods.

We conducted a prospective single site study comparing the immune response after H1N1 vaccination of healthy controls (group A), patients who had solid tumors and were taking myelosuppressive chemotherapy (group B), patients who had solid tumors and were taking nonmyelosuppressive or no treatment (group C), and patients who had hematologic malignancies (group D).

Results.

At 2–6 weeks after vaccination, seroconversion was observed in 80.0% of group A (95% confidence interval [CI], 65.0%–89.7%), 72.2% of group B (95% CI, 55.9%–84.3%), 87.0% of group C (95% CI, 72.2%–94.7%), and 75.0% of group D (95% CI, 52.8%–89.2%) (p = NS). The geometric mean titer ratio, that is, geometric mean factor increase in antibody titer after vaccination, was 12.6 (95% CI, 7.9–19.9), 12.7 (95% CI, 7.3–22.1), 23.0 (95% CI, 13.9–38.2), and 12.1 (95% CI, 5.3–27.9) (p = NS), and the seroprotection rates were 95.5% (95% CI, 84.0%–99.6%), 79.0% (95% CI, 63.4%–89.2%), 90.5% (95% CI, 77.4%–96.8%), and 90.0% (95% CI, 71%–98.7%) in the corresponding groups (p = NS). Immune responses were robust regardless of malignancy, or time intervals between the use of myelosuppressive or immunosuppressive medications and vaccination. No participants developed clinical H1N1 infection.

Conclusion.

Cancer patients, whether taking myelosuppressive chemotherapy or not, are able to generate an immune response to the H1N1 vaccine similar to that of healthy controls.

Introduction

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is an important risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer. Individuals with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have higher oral HPV prevalence but the risk factors for oral HPV infection are not well understood for either HIV-positive or HIV-negative individuals.

Methods

This study was nested within the MACS (men) and WIHS (women) cohorts. Exfoliated oral epithelial cells were collected from 379 HIV-positive and 266 at-risk HIV-negative individuals using a rinse and gargle with Scope™ mouthwash. Samples were tested for 36 types of HPV DNA using PGMY09/11 consensus primers and reverse line blot hybridization. Risk factors for oral HPV infection were explored using logistic regression with generalized estimating equations (GEE) in this cross-sectional analysis.

Results

Prevalent oral HPV infection was common (34%), including HPV16 infection in 5.7% of participants. HIV-positive individuals had increased odds of prevalent oral HPV infection compared to HIV-negative individuals (aOR=2.1, 95%CI=1.6–2.8). Risk factors for prevalent oral HPV differed in HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants. Among HIV-negative individuals, higher number of recent oral sex or rimming partners were strong risk factors for prevalent oral HPV infection (each p-trend<0.01). In contrast, among HIV-positive individuals lower CD4 T-cell count (p-trend<0.001) and higher number of lifetime sexual partners (p-trend=0.03) were strong risk factors.

Conclusions

Oral HPV prevalence was elevated in HIV-positive individuals after controlling for differences in cigarette smoking and sexual behavior, supporting the possibility that HIV may affect the natural history of oral HPV.

Impact

Immunosuppression may contribute to increased persistence or progression of oral HPV infection.

Objectives

To determine the incidence rate of, and the relative time to pregnancy by HIV status in US women between 2002 and 2009.

Design

The Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) is an ongoing, multicenter prospective cohort study of the natural and treated history of HIV infection and related outcomes among women with and without HIV.

Methods

Eligible participants were ≤45 years of age; sexually active with male partner(s) or reported a pregnancy outcome within the past year; and never reported hysterectomy, tubal ligation, or oopherectomy. Poisson regression was conducted to compare pregnancy incidence rates over time by HIV status. Relative time to pregnancy was ascertained via Kaplan-Meier plots and generalized gamma survival analysis.

Results

Adjusting for age, number of male sex partners, contraception, parity, exchanging sex, and alcohol use, HIV infection was associated with a 40% reduction in the incidence rate of pregnancy (incidence rate ratio=0.60, 95% confidence interval: [C.I.] 0.46–0.78). The time for HIV-infected women to become pregnant was 73% longer relative to HIV-uninfected women (relative time=1.73, 95% C.I.: 1.35–2.36). In addition to HIV infection, decreased parity and older age were independent predictors of lower pregnancy incidence.

Conclusions

Despite the beneficial effects of modern antiretroviral therapy on survival and prevention of maternal-to-child transmission, our findings suggest that pregnancy incidence remains lower among HIV-infected women. Whether this lower incidence is due to behavioral differences or reduced biologic fertility remains an area worthy of further study.

Objective

To describe the natural history of genital warts and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) in women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Methods

A cohort of 2,791 HIV infected and 953 uninfected women followed for up to 13 years had genital examinations at 6-month intervals, with biopsy for lesions suspicious for VIN.

Results

The prevalence of warts was 4.4% (5.3% for HIV seropositive women and 1.9% for seronegative women, P < 0.0001). The cumulative incidence of warts was 33% (95% C.I. 30, 36%) in HIV seropositive and 9% (95% C.I. 6, 12%) in seronegative women (P < 0.0001). In multivariable analysis, lower CD4 lymphocyte count, younger age, and current smoking were strongly associated with risk for incident warts. Among 501 HIV seropositive and 43 seronegative women, warts regressed in 410 (82%) seropositive and 41 (95%) seronegative women (P = 0.02), most in the first year after diagnosis. In multivariable analysis, regression was negatively associated with HIV status and lower CD4 count as well as older age. Incident VIN of any grade occurred more frequently among HIV seropositive than seronegative women: 0.42 (0.33 – 0.53) vs 0.07 (0.02 – 0.18)/100 person-years (P < 0.0001). VIN2+ was found in 58 women (55 with and 3 without HIV, P < 0.001). Two women with HIV developed stage IB squamous cell vulvar cancers.

Conclusion

While genital warts and VIN are more common among HIV seropositive than seronegative women, wart regression is common even in women with HIV, and cancers are infrequent.

The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was a unique opportunity to investigate differences in influenza infection using serology by HIV status. Using serial serum specimens collected from 1 April to 30 September 2009 and the prior 2 years from Women’s Interagency HIV study participants, there was no difference in serologic evidence of 2009 H1N1 infection among HIV-infected women with a CD4 cell count at least 350 cells/µl compared with HIV-uninfected women. Owing to evidence showing a greater risk of influenza-related complications, HIV-infected individuals should continue to be a priority group for vaccination.

Background. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and II genotype is associated with clearance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, but little is known regarding its relation with HCV viral load or risk of liver disease in patients with persistent HCV infection.

Methods. High-resolution HLA class I and II genotyping was conducted in a prospective cohort of 519 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–seropositive and 100 HIV-seronegative women with persistent HCV infection. The end points were baseline HCV viral load and 2 noninvasive indexes of liver disease, fibrosis-4 (FIB-4), and the aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index (APRI), measured at baseline and prospectively.

Results. DQB1*0301 was associated with low baseline HCV load (β = −.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], −.6 to −.3; P < .00001), as well as with low odds of FIB-4–defined (odds ratio [OR], .5; 95% CI, .2–.9; P = .02) and APRI-defined liver fibrosis (OR, .5; 95% CI, .3–1.0; P = .06) at baseline and/or during follow-up. Most additional associations with HCV viral load also involved HLA class II alleles. Additional associations with FIB-4 and APRI primarily involved class I alleles, for example, the relation of B*1503 with APRI-defined fibrosis had an OR of 2.0 (95% CI, 1.0–3.7; P = .04).

Conclusions. HLA genotype may influence HCV viral load and risk of liver disease, including DQB1*0301, which was associated with HCV clearance in prior studies.

In a longitudinal study of outcomes on atazanavir-based therapy in a large cohort of HIV-infected women, hair levels of atazanavir were the strongest independent predictor of virologic suppression. Hair antiretroviral concentrations may serve as a useful tool in HIV care.

Background. Adequate exposure to antiretrovirals is important to maintain durable responses, but methods to assess exposure (eg, querying adherence and single plasma drug level measurements) are limited. Hair concentrations of antiretrovirals can integrate adherence and pharmacokinetics into a single assay.

Methods. Small hair samples were collected from participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS), a large cohort of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected (and at-risk noninfected) women. From 2003 through 2008, we analyzed atazanavir hair concentrations longitudinally for women reporting receipt of atazanavir-based therapy. Multivariate random effects logistic regression models for repeated measures were used to estimate the association of hair drug levels with the primary outcome of virologic suppression (HIV RNA level, <80 copies/mL).

Results. 424 WIHS participants (51% African-American, 31% Hispanic) contributed 1443 person-visits to the analysis. After adjusting for age, race, treatment experience, pretreatment viral load, CD4 count and AIDS status, and self-reported adherence, hair levels were the strongest predictor of suppression. Categorized hair antiretroviral levels revealed a monotonic relationship to suppression; women with atazanavir levels in the highest quintile had odds ratios (ORs) of 59.8 (95% confidence ratio, 29.0–123.2) for virologic suppression. Hair atazanavir concentrations were even more strongly associated with resuppression of viral loads in subgroups in which there had been previous lapses in adherence (OR, 210.2 [95% CI, 46.0–961.1]), low hair levels (OR, 132.8 [95% CI, 26.5–666.0]), or detectable viremia (OR, 400.7 [95% CI, 52.3–3069.7]).

Conclusions. Antiretroviral hair levels surpassed any other predictor of virologic outcomes to HIV treatment in a large cohort. Low antiretroviral exposure in hair may trigger interventions prior to failure or herald virologic failure in settings where measurement of viral loads is unavailable. Monitoring hair antiretroviral concentrations may be useful for prolonging regimen durability.

The human gene for CC chemokine receptor 5, a coreceptor for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), affects susceptibility to infection. Most studies of predominantly male cohorts found that individuals carrying a homozygous deleted form of the gene, Δ32, were protected against transmission, but protection did not extend to Δ32 heterozygotes. The role played by this mutation in HIV-1 transmission to women was studied in 2605 participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study. The Δ32 gene frequency was 0.026 for HIV-1–seropositive women and 0.040 for HIV-1–seronegative women, and statistical analyses showed that Δ32 heterozygotes were significantly less likely to be infected (odds ratio, 0.63 [95% confidence interval, 0.44–0.90]). The CCR5 Δ32 heterozygous genotype may confer partial protection against HIV-1 infection in women. Because Δ32 is rare in Africans and Asians, it seems plausible that differential genetic susceptibility, in addition to social and behavioral factors, may contribute to the rapid heterosexual spread of HIV-1 in Africa and Asia.

Eight premenopausal women with cancer had blood drawn for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Mullerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS) before and three months after receiving chemotherapy. Unlike MIS, BDNF levels were not reduced following chemotherapy.

While the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genotype has been associated with the rate of HIV disease progression in untreated patients, little is known regarding these relationships in patients using highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). The limited data reported to date identified few HLA-HIV disease associations in patients using HAART and even occasional associations that were opposite of those found in untreated patients. We conducted high-resolution HLA class I and II genotyping in a random sample (n = 860) of HIV-seropositive women enrolled in a long-term cohort initiated in 1994. HLA-HIV disease associations before and after initiation of HAART were examined using multivariate analyses. In untreated HIV-seropositive patients, we observed many of the predicted associations, consistent with prior studies. For example, HLA-B*57 (β = −0.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = −0.9 to −0.5; P = 5 × 10−11) and Bw4 (β = −0.2; 95% CI = −0.4 to −0.1; P = 0.009) were inversely associated with baseline HIV viral load, and B*57 was associated with a low risk of rapid CD4+ decline (odds ratio [OR] = 0.2; 95% CI = 0.1 to 0.6; P = 0.002). Conversely, in treated patients, the odds of a virological response to HAART were lower for B*57:01 (OR = 0.2; 95% CI = 0.0 to 0.9; P = 0.03), and Bw4 (OR = 0.4; 95% CI = 0.1 to 1.0; P = 0.04) was associated with low odds of an immunological response. The associations of HLA genotype with HIV disease are different and sometimes even opposite in treated and untreated patients.

Recently, a mumps outbreak in New York and New Jersey was reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Subsequently, the dissemination of the disease was rapid, and, from June 28th 2009 through January 29th 2010, a total of 1,521 cases of mumps were reported in New York and New Jersey. Seven presumed cases occurred in pregnant women cared for at our institution. Mumps diagnosis as per the NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene was based on clinical manifestations, particularly parotitis. Prior immunizations with mumps vaccine and negative IgM were not adequate to rule out mumps infections. All of our seven patients had exposure to mumps in either their household or their community, and some of the them had symptoms of mumps. Due to the difficulties in interpreting serologies of these patients, their cases led to a presumed diagnosis of mumps. The diagnosis of mumps lead to the isolation of patients and health care personnel that were in contact with them. In this paper, we detail the presenting findings, diagnostic dilemmas and infection control challenges associated with presumed cases of mumps in pregnancy.

Objective

To explore previously reported associations between cervical squamous lesions and psychological measures of stress and depression.

Methods

In a multicenter cohort study, HIV infected and seronegative comparison women had Pap tests and completed self-report questionnaires including the Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS), which measures perceived stress; the PTSD Civilian Symptom Checklist (PCL-C), which measures symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder; and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), which measures depressive symptoms.

Results

Median scores were 13 (range 0–38) for the PSS, 24 (range 17–85) for the PCL-C, and 8 (range 0–57), for the CES-D, indicating moderate stress and minimal depression. For PSS, compared to women in the lowest tertile of reported stress, O.R. for SIL was 0.88 (95% C.I. 0.50–1.54) for women in the middle tertile and 0.96 (95% C.I. 0.54–1.68) for women in the highest tertile. For PCL-C, compared to women in the lowest tertile of PTSD symptoms, O.R. for SIL was 0.79 (95% C.I. 0.43–1.41) for women in the middle tertile and 1.17 (95% C.I. 0.68–2.01) for women in the highest tertile. SIL rates were similar for CES-D scores ≥16 (compared to women with lower scores O.R. 1.41, 95% C.I. 0.88–2.26) and ≥ 23 (O.R. 1.39, 95% C.I. 0.81–2.40). In multivariable analysis including number of sexual partners, age, income, ethnicity, and serostatus, stress as measured by PSS and PCL-C, and depressive symptoms as measured by CES-D remained unassociated with SIL.

Conclusions

We found no evidence that stress and depression affect the prevalence of cervical squamous lesions.

Both antiretroviral therapy and the human coreceptor polymorphism CCR2-V64I slow progression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease. To examine the effect of V64I on disease progression in patients receiving therapy, we determined CCR2 genotypes in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study cohort. We studied 2047 HIV-1–infected women, most of whom initiated treatment during the study. No association was seen between CCR2 genotype and either disease progression or therapeutic response, suggesting that the benefits of treatment most likely overshadow the salutary effects of the V64I polymorphism.

Background

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis has been hypothesized to influence the rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. This premise is based largely on laboratory models showing that IGF-I stimulates thymic growth and increases lymphocyte numbers and that IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)–3 has an opposing effect, inhibiting hematopoietic stem cell development.

Methods

We studied 1422 HIV-infected women enrolled in a large cohort that entailed semiannual follow-up (initiated in 1994). Baseline serum samples were tested for IGF-I and IGFBP-3 to determine their associations with incident clinical acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and CD4+ T cell count decline prior to April 1996 (before the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy [HAART]).

Results

Low IGF-I levels (Ptrend = .02) and high IGFBP-3 levels (Ptrend = .02) were associated with rapid CD4+ T cell count decline. Only IGFBP-3, however, was significantly associated with AIDS incidence (hazard ratio for highest vs. lowest quartile, 2.65 [95% confidence interval, 1.30–5.42]; Ptrend = .02) in multivariable models.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that serum levels of IGFBP-3 (and possibly IGF-I) are associated with the rate of HIV disease progression in women and, more broadly, that interindividual heterogeneity in the IGF axis may influence HIV pathogenesis. If correct, the IGF axis could be a target for interventions to slow HIV disease progression and extend the time before use of HAART becomes necessary.

Background

Among women with low o r undetectable quantities of HIV-1 RNA in plasma, factors associated with genital HIV-1 RNA shedding, including choice of treatment regimen, are poorly characterized.

Methods

We measured HIV-1 RNA in cervical swab specimens obtained from participants in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study who had concurrent plasma viral RNA levels <500 copies/mL, and we assessed factors associated with genital HIV shedding. The study was powered to determine the relative effects of antiretroviral protease inhibitors (PIs) versus nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) on viral RNA shedding.

Results

Overall, 44 (15%) of 290 women had detectable HIV-1 RNA in cervical specimens. In the final multivariate model, shedding was independently associated with NNRTI (vs. PI) use (odds ratio [OR], 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.24, 1.13 to 4.45) and illicit drug use (OR, 95% CI: 2.41, 0.96 to 5.69).

Conclusions

This is the largest study to define risks for genital HIV-1 RNA shedding in women with low/undetectable plasma virus. Shedding in this population was common, and NNRTI-based highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (vs. PI-based HAART) was associated with genital HIV shedding. Further study is required to determine the impact of these findings on transmission of HIV from mother to child or to sexual partners.

PURPOSE

To examine changes in the causes of death and mortality in women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy.

METHODS

Among women with, or at risk of, HIV infection, who were enrolled in a national study from 1994 to 1995, we used an algorithm that classified cause of death as due to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or non-AIDS causes based on data from death certificates and the CD4 count. Poisson regression models were used to estimate death rates and to determine the risk factors for AIDS and non-AIDS deaths.

RESULTS

Of 2059 HIV-infected women and 569 who were at risk of HIV infection, 468 (18%) had died by April 2000 (451 HIV-infected and 17 not infected). Causes of death were available for 428 participants (414 HIV-infected and 14 not infected). Among HIV-infected women, deaths were classified as AIDS (n = 294), non-AIDS (n = 91), or indeterminate (n = 29). The non-AIDS causes included liver failure (n = 19), drug overdose (n = 16), non-AIDS malignancies (n = 12), cardiac disease (n = 10), and murder, suicide, or accident (n = 10). All-cause mortality declined an average of 26% per year (P = 0.03) and AIDS-related mortality declined by 39% per year (P = 0.01), whereas non-AIDS-related mortality remained stable (10% average annual decrease, P = 0.73). Factors that were independently associated with non-AIDS-related mortality included depression, history of injection drug use with hepatitis C infection, cigarette smoking, and age.

CONCLUSION

A substantial minority (20%) of deaths among women with HIV was due to causes other than AIDS. Our data suggest that to decrease mortality further among HIV-infected women, attention must be paid to treatable conditions, such as hepatitis C, depression, and drug and tobacco use.

We assessed the prevalence and predictors of latent Toxoplasma infection in a large group of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected and HIV-uninfected at-risk US women. The prevalence of latent Toxoplasma infection was 15% (380 of 2525 persons) and did not differ by HIV infection status. HIV-infected women aged ≥50 years and those born outside of the United States were more likely to have latent Toxoplasma infection, with prevalences of 32% and 41%, respectively.

Studies of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles and their relation with hepatitis C virus (HCV) viremia have had conflicting results. However, these studies have varied in size and methods, and few large studies assessed HLA class I alleles. Only one study conducted high resolution class I genotyping. The current investigation therefore involved high-resolution HLA class I and II genotyping of a large multi-racial cohort of US women with high prevalence of HCV and HIV. Our primary analyses evaluated associations between twelve HLA alleles identified through a critical review of the literature and HCV viremia in 758 HCV-seropositive women. Other alleles with >5% prevalence were also assessed; previously unreported associations were corrected for multiple comparisons. DRB1*0101 (prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1–2.6), B*5701 (PR=2.0; 95% CI = 1.0–3.1), B*5703 (PR = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.0–2.5), and Cw*0102 (PR = 1.9; 95% CI = 1.0–3.0) were associated with the absence of HCV RNA (i.e., HCV clearance), while DRB1*0301 (PR = 0.4; 95% CI = 0.2–0.7) was associated with HCV RNA positivity. DQB1*0301 was also associated with the absence of HCV RNA but only among HIV-seronegative women (PR = 3.4; 95% CI = 1.2–11.8). Each of these associations was among those predicted. We additionally studied the relation of HLA alleles with HCV infection (serostatus) in women at high risk of HCV from injection drug use (IDU; N=838), but no significant relationships were observed.

Conclusion

HLA genotype influences host capacity to clear HCV viremia. The specific HLA associations observed in the current study are unlikely to be due to chance since they were a priori hypothesized.

Purpose

Prior reports of an increased risk of lung cancer in HIV-infected individuals have not always included control groups, nor considered other risk factors such as tobacco exposure. We sought to determine the role of HIV infection and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on lung cancer incidence in 2,651 HIV-infected and 898 HIV-uninfected women from the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

Methods

A prospective study of the incidence rates of lung cancer was conducted, with cases identified through medical records, death certificates, and state cancer registries. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were calculated to compare lung cancer incidence among HIV-infected and uninfected WIHS participants, with population-based expectations using the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry. Behavioral characteristics in the WIHS were compared to US women by age and race adjusting the population-based data from the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES) III.

Results

Incidence rates of lung cancer were similar among HIV-infected and uninfected WIHS women. Lung cancer SIRs were increased in both HIV-infected and -uninfected women compared with population expectations, but did not differ by HIV status. Among HIV-infected women, lung cancer incidence rates were similar in pre-HAART and HAART eras. All WIHS women with lung cancer were smokers; the risk of lung cancer increased with cumulative tobacco exposure. WIHS women were statistically more likely to smoke than US women studied in NHANES III.

Conclusion

HIV infection is strongly associated with smoking behaviors that increase lung cancer risk. The role of HIV itself remains to be clarified.

Background

The impact of HAART on the natural history of human papillomavirus (HPV) remains uncertain following conflicting reports. Prior studies, however, did not consider patients’ adherence to their regimen, or HAART effectiveness (viral suppression).

Methods

HIV-positive women (N=286) who initiated HAART during follow-up in a prospective cohort were assessed semiannually for HPV (by PCR) and SIL. Adherence was defined as using HAART as prescribed ≥95% of the time, and effective HAART as suppression of HIV replication. The prevalence, incident detection, clearance/persistence of HPV/SIL before versus after HAART initiation were compared (using women as their own comparison group).

Findings

HAART initiation among adherent women was associated with a significant reduction in prevalence (odds ratio [OR] 0.60 [95% CI 0.44–0.81];p=0.001), incident detection of oncogenic HPV (hazard ratio [HR] 0.49 [0.30–0.82];p=0.006), and decreased prevalence and more rapid clearance of oncogenic HPV-positive SIL (HR 2.35 [1.07–5.18];p=0.03). Effects were smaller among non-adherent women. The associations of HPV/SIL with HAART effectiveness were fairly similar to those with HAART adherence.

Conclusions

Effective and adherent HAART use is associated with a significantly reduced burden of HPV and SIL; this may help explain why rates of cervical cancer have not increased during the HAART era, despite greater longevity.

Objective

To compare serum mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS) levels between white, black and Hispanic women to determine if ovarian aging occurs at a different time course for women of different racial groups.

Design

Longitudinal study of serum MIS levels in women of different race/ethnicity over two different time points.

Setting

Women’s Interagency HIV Study, a multicenter prospective cohort study.

Patient(s)

Serum samples obtained from 809 participants (122 white, 462 black and 225 Hispanic women).

Intervention(s)

Comparison of serum MIS between women of different race/ethnicity at two time points (median age 37.5 years and 43.3 years).

Main Outcome Measure(s)

Variation in MIS by race/ethnicity over time, controlling for age, BMI, HIV status and smoking.

Result(s)

Compared to white women, average MIS values were lower among black (25.2% lower, p=0.037) and Hispanic (24.6% lower, p=0.063) women, adjusting for age, BMI, smoking and HIV status.

Conclusion

There is an independent effect of race/ethnicity on the age-related decline in MIS over time.

Objective

To estimate the frequency and histologic correlates of glandular abnormalities in cervical cytology among women with the human immunodeficiency virus and to compare findings with those of women without HIV.

Methods

In a cohort study of HIV infected and uninfected women followed between 1994 and 2007, Pap tests were obtained every 6 months. Glandular abnormalities, including atypical glandular cells (AGC), adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS), and adenocarcinoma, were identified and correlated with biopsy histology. Multivariate models to summarize data across visits used Generalized Estimating Equations. The association of Pap and histology results was assessed using chi-square tests.

Results

Of 48,362 Pap tests from 3,766 women, glandular abnormalities were found in 341 (0.7%) smears from 244 (6%) women, including 93 (1.0%) of 9,564 Pap tests among HIV-seropositive women with CD4 lymphocyte counts less than 250/cmm, 103 (0.8%) of 13,023 Paps among those with counts 250–500/cmm, 68 (0.6%) of 12,470 Paps among women with counts greater than 500/cmm, and 70 (0.6%) of 11,769 Paps among HIV-seronegative women (P for trend = 0.006). Colposcopy was documented for only 148 (61%) of 244 index Pap tests in women with glandular abnormalities. After index abnormal Paps, endocervical curettings were obtained from 106 (43%) women, cervical biopsies from 76 (38%), and endometrial biopsies from 19 (8%). Squamous lesions predominated among histologic findings and histology results did not differ by HIV serostatus (P = 0.16).

Conclusion

Although immunosuppression increased the risk of glandular Pap abnormalities increased in women with HIV, these remained uncommon. Compliance with management guidelines can improved.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) natural history has several characteristics that, at least from a statistical perspective, are not often encountered elsewhere in infectious disease and cancer research. There are, for example, multiple HPV types, and infection by each HPV type may be considered separate events. While concurrent infections are common, the prevalence, incidence, duration/persistence of each individual HPV can be separately measured. However, repeated measures involving the same subject tend to be correlated. The probability of detecting any given HPV type, for example, is greater among individuals who are currently positive for at least one other HPV type. Serial testing for HPV over time represents a second form of repeated measures. Statistical inferences that fail to take these correlations into account would be invalid. However, methods that do not use all the data would be inefficient. Marginal and mixed effects models can address these issues, but are not frequently utilized in HPV research. The current paper provides an overview of these methods, and then uses HPV data from a cohort of HIV-positive women to illustrate how they may be applied, and compare their results. The findings show the greater efficiency of these models compared with standard logistic regression and Cox models. Because mixed effects models estimate subject-specific associations, they sometimes gave much higher effect estimates than marginal models, which estimate population-averaged associations. Overall, the results demonstrate that marginal and mixed effects models are efficient for studying HPV natural history, but also highlight the importance of understanding how these models differ.