Depression is common in people with cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and those with HIV, and is a risk factor for CVD-related mortality. However, little is known about whether HIV influences the relationship between depression and cardiovascular risk. 526 HIV-infected and 132 uninfected women from the Women’s Interagency HIV Study were included in an analysis of women who completed twice-yearly study visits over 9.5 years. CVD risk was calculated at baseline and approximately 9.5 years later using the Framingham Risk Score (FRS). Chronic depressive symptoms were defined as Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale scores of 16 or greater at ≥75% of study visits. Over the follow-up period, 22.8% of HIV-infected women and 15.9% of HIV-uninfected women had chronic depressive symptoms (p=0.08). Baseline FRS were similar between HIV infected and uninfected women (M=−5.70±SE=0.30 vs. M=−6.90± SE=0.60, p=0.07) as was follow-up FRS (M=0.82±SE=0.30 vs. M=−0.44± SE=0.73, p=0.11). Among HIV-infected and uninfected women, together, follow-up FRS were higher among women with chronic depressive symptoms as compared to those without (M=1.3± SE=0.6 vs. M=−0.3± SE=0.40, p<0.01), after adjusting for baseline FRS and other covariates. HIV status did not modify the relationship between chronic depressive symptoms and FRS. Chronic depressive symptoms accelerated CVD risk scores to a similar extent in both HIV infected and uninfected women. This implies that the diagnosis and treatment of depression may be an important consideration in CV risk reduction in the setting of HIV-infection. The determination of factors that mediate the depression/CVD relationship merits further study.

Objectives

To evaluate the association between enrollment into an AIDS Drug Assistance Program (ADAP) and use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and antihypertensive therapy.

Methods

Cross-sectional analyses of data were performed on HAART-eligible women enrolled in the California (n=439), Illinois (n=168), and New York (n=487) Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) sites. A subset of HIV-infected women with hypertension (n=395) was also analyzed. Unadjusted and adjusted backward stepwise elimination logistic regression measured the association between demographic, behavioral, and health service factors and non-use of HAART or antihypertensive medication.

Results

In adjusted analysis of HAART non-use, women without ADAP were significantly more likely not to use HAART (odds ratio [OR] = 2.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.5–3.7) than women with ADAP. In adjusted analysis of antihypertensive medication non-use, women without ADAP had an increased but not significant odds of antihypertensive medication non-use (OR = 2.4, 95% CI = 0.93–6.0) than women with ADAP.

Conclusions

Government-funded programs for prescription drug coverage, such as ADAP, may play an important role in how HIV-positive women to access and use essential medications for chronic diseases.

Objectives

To assess the impact of HAART use on AIDS-defining KS and NHL among adults with AIDS.

Design

Registry linkage study.

Methods

Adults diagnosed with AIDS from 1990 to 2000 in the San Francisco AIDS case registry were matched with cancer cases diagnosed from 1985 to 2002 in the California Cancer Registry. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate the risk and survival of AIDS- related KS, systemic NHL, and primary CNS lymphoma.

Results

Of the 14,183 adults with AIDS, 3028 were diagnosed with KS, 776 with systemic NHL, and 254 with CNS NHL. After adjustment for potential confounders, more recent calendar period and use of HAART were significantly associated with a decreased risk of KS while HAART use but not calendar period were significantly associated with systemic and CNS NHL. In adjusted analysis of KS survival time, there was strong evidence of a reduced risk of death associated with HAART use and more recent calendar period. In contrast, in adjusted analyses of systemic NHL survival time, HAART use was not associated with improved survival time; however, calendar period was associated with longer survival. In adjusted analysis of CNS NHL survival time, only cancer treatment was associated with a longer survival time.

Conclusions

After controlling for calendar period and other confounders, use of HAART decreased the risk of KS, systemic NHL, and CNS NHL. Use of HAART also increased KS survival time but not NHL survival time.

Objective

To estimate changes in high risk women’s knowledge of cervical cancer prevention, human papillomavirus (HPV), and HPV vaccination since introduction and marketing of HPV vaccines.

Methods

At study visits in 2006 and 2008, women with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and at-risk comparison women in a multicenter U.S. cohort study completed 44-item self-report questionnaires exploring their knowledge of cervical cancer prevention, HPV, and HPV vaccination. Results from 2006 were compared to those obtained in 2008. Knowledge scores were correlated with demographic variables, measures of education and attention, and medical factors. Significant associations were assessed in multivariable models.

Results

HIV-seropositive women had higher knowledge scores than seronegative women at baseline (13.2 +/− 5.7 vs 11.8 +/− 6.0, P = 0.0002) and follow-up (14.1 +/− 5.3 vs 13.2 +/− 5.5, P = 0.01), but the change in scores was similar (0.9 +/− 5.3 vs 1.5 +/− 5.5, P = 0.13). Knowledge that cervical cancer is caused by a virus rose significantly (P = 0.005), but only to 24%. Belief that cervical cancer is preventable only rose from 52% to 55% (P = 0.04), but more than 90% of women in both periods believed regular Pap testing was important. In ANCOVA models, higher baseline score, younger age, higher education level, higher income, and former- as opposed to never-drug users, but not HIV status, were associated with improved knowledge.

Conclusion

High-risk women’s understanding of cervical cancer and HPV has improved, but gaps remain. Improvement has been weakest for less-educated and lower-income women.

The lifespan of people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has increased as a result of effective antiretroviral therapy, and the incidences of the AIDS-defining cancers, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and Kaposi sarcoma, have declined. Even so, HIV-infected individuals are now at greater risk of other cancers, including Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL). To identify candidate biomarkers for the early detection of HL, we undertook an accurate mass and elution time tag proteomics analysis of individual plasma samples from either HIV-infected patients without HL (controls; n = 14) and from HIV-infected patient samples with HL (n = 22). This analysis identified 60 proteins that were statistically (p<0.05) altered and at least 1.5-fold different between the two groups. At least three of these proteins have previously been reported to be altered in the blood of HL patients that were not known to be HIV positive, suggesting that these markers may be broadly useful for detecting HL. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software identified “inflammatory response” and “cancer” as the top two biological functions associated with these proteins. Overall, this study validated three plasma proteins as candidate biomarkers for detecting HL, and identified 57 novel candidate biomarkers that remain to be validated. The relationship of these novel candidate biomarkers with cancer and inflammation suggests that they are truly associated with HL and therefore may be useful for the early detection of this cancer in susceptible populations.

Objectives

Relationships between non-use of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), race/ethnicity, violence, drug use and other risk factors are investigated using qualitative profiles of five risk factors (unprotected sex, multiple male partners, heavy drinking, crack, cocaine or heroin use, and exposure to physical violence) and association of the profiles and race/ethnicity with non-use of HAART over time.

Methods

A Hidden Markov Model (HMM) was used to summarize risk factor profiles and changes in profiles over time in a longitudinal sample of HIV-infected women enrolled in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) with follow-up from 2002 to 2005 (N=802).

Results

Four risk factor profiles corresponding to four distinct latent states were identified from the five risk factors. Trajectory analysis indicated that states characterized by high probabilities of all risk factors or by low probabilities of all risk factors were both relatively stable over time. Being in the highest risk state did not significantly elevate the odds of HAART non-use (OR: 1.05; 95% CI: 0.6-1.8). However, being in a latent state characterized by elevated probabilities of heavy drinking and exposure to physical violence, along with slight elevations in three other risk factors, significantly increased odds of HAART non-use (OR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1.1-1.9).

Conclusions

The research suggests that HAART use might be improved by interventions aimed at women who are heavy drinkers with recent exposure to physical violence and evidence of other risk factors. More research about the relationship between clustering and patterns of risk factors and use of HAART is needed.

Objectives

We examined racial/ethnic disparities in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) use and whether differences are moderated by substance use or insurance status, using data from the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

Methods

Logistic regression examined HAART use in a longitudinal cohort of women for whom HAART was clinically indicated in 2005 (N=1354).

Results

Approximately 3 of every 10 eligible women reported not taking HAART. African American and Hispanic women were less likely than were White women to use HAART. After we adjusted for potential confounders, the higher likelihood of not using HAART persisted for African American but not for Hispanic women. Uninsured and privately insured women, regardless of race/ethnicity, were less likely than were Medicaid enrollees to use HAART. Although alcohol use was related to HAART nonuse, illicit drug use was not.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that expanding and improving insurance coverage should increase access to antiretroviral therapy across racial/ethnic groups, but it is not likely to eliminate the disparity in use of HAART between African American and White women with HIV/AIDS.

PURPOSE

To examine changes in the causes of death and mortality in women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy.

METHODS

Among women with, or at risk of, HIV infection, who were enrolled in a national study from 1994 to 1995, we used an algorithm that classified cause of death as due to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or non-AIDS causes based on data from death certificates and the CD4 count. Poisson regression models were used to estimate death rates and to determine the risk factors for AIDS and non-AIDS deaths.

RESULTS

Of 2059 HIV-infected women and 569 who were at risk of HIV infection, 468 (18%) had died by April 2000 (451 HIV-infected and 17 not infected). Causes of death were available for 428 participants (414 HIV-infected and 14 not infected). Among HIV-infected women, deaths were classified as AIDS (n = 294), non-AIDS (n = 91), or indeterminate (n = 29). The non-AIDS causes included liver failure (n = 19), drug overdose (n = 16), non-AIDS malignancies (n = 12), cardiac disease (n = 10), and murder, suicide, or accident (n = 10). All-cause mortality declined an average of 26% per year (P = 0.03) and AIDS-related mortality declined by 39% per year (P = 0.01), whereas non-AIDS-related mortality remained stable (10% average annual decrease, P = 0.73). Factors that were independently associated with non-AIDS-related mortality included depression, history of injection drug use with hepatitis C infection, cigarette smoking, and age.

CONCLUSION

A substantial minority (20%) of deaths among women with HIV was due to causes other than AIDS. Our data suggest that to decrease mortality further among HIV-infected women, attention must be paid to treatable conditions, such as hepatitis C, depression, and drug and tobacco use.

Background

Liver disease is a leading cause of death in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected women; however, risk factors for hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in this population have not been well studied.

Methods

We describe the seroprevalence and predictors of HBV infection in a cross-sectional analysis of 2132 women with and at risk for HIV infection enrolled in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study during the periods 1994–95 and 2001–02. Any test result positive for antibody to hepatitis B core antigen defined infection; those women with serological evidence of vaccine immunity were excluded from analysis. Women were stratified into those with a history of injection drug use (IDU), those with a history of noninjection drug use (non-IDU), and those with no history of illicit drug use.

Results

Of 1606 HIV-infected and 526 HIV-uninfected women, 7% and 12%, respectively, appeared to be vaccine immune. After exclusion of these women, 43% of 1500 HIV-infected and 22% of 461 HIV-uninfected women had HBV infection. HBV infection prevalence differed among the IDU, non-IDU, and no illicit drug use groups (76%, 30%, and 17%, respectively; P < .0001). HBV infection was strongly associated with herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) seropositivity in the IDU group (odds ratio [OR], 2.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6–5.4) and with a history of syphilis in the non-IDU group (OR, 2.7; 95% CI, 1.4–5.0).

Discussion

We found a high prevalence of HBV infection in our cohort of women with and at risk for HIV infection. HSV-2 seropositivity and a history of syphilis appeared to be important correlates of HBV infection. Sexual transmission of HBV, particularly in those with a history of genital ulcer disease, should be a major focus of education in all high-risk groups.

Objective

To assess knowledge of and attitudes towards human papillomavirus (HPV), Pap testing, and the HPV vaccine.

Methods

In a multicenter U.S. cohort study, women with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and at-risk comparison women completed 44-item standardized self-report questionnaires exploring their knowledge of cervical cancer prevention, HPV, and HPV vaccination. Results were correlated with demographic variables, measures of education and attention, and medical factors. Data were clustered using principal component analysis. Significant associations were assessed in multivariable models.

Results

Among 1588 women, HIV seropositive women better understood facts about cervical cancer prevention and HPV than seronegative women, but both had substantial knowledge deficits. Almost all women considered Pap testing important, although 53% of HIV seropositive and 48% of seronegative women considered cervical cancer not preventable (P=0.21). Only 44% of HIV seropositive women knew Paps assess the cervix, versus 42% of HIV seronegative women (P=0.57). Both groups understood that HPV causes genital warts and cervical cancer (67% of HIV seropositive vs. 55% of seronegative women, P=0.002). About half of both groups considered HPV vaccination extremely important for cervical cancer prevention. HIV seronegative women were more likely to report learning of HPV vaccination through advertising than from clinicians (81% vs. 64%, P<0.0001).

Conclusion

High risk women need effective education about cervical cancer prevention, HPV, and HPV vaccination.

Purpose

Prior reports of an increased risk of lung cancer in HIV-infected individuals have not always included control groups, nor considered other risk factors such as tobacco exposure. We sought to determine the role of HIV infection and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on lung cancer incidence in 2,651 HIV-infected and 898 HIV-uninfected women from the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

Methods

A prospective study of the incidence rates of lung cancer was conducted, with cases identified through medical records, death certificates, and state cancer registries. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) were calculated to compare lung cancer incidence among HIV-infected and uninfected WIHS participants, with population-based expectations using the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registry. Behavioral characteristics in the WIHS were compared to US women by age and race adjusting the population-based data from the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES) III.

Results

Incidence rates of lung cancer were similar among HIV-infected and uninfected WIHS women. Lung cancer SIRs were increased in both HIV-infected and -uninfected women compared with population expectations, but did not differ by HIV status. Among HIV-infected women, lung cancer incidence rates were similar in pre-HAART and HAART eras. All WIHS women with lung cancer were smokers; the risk of lung cancer increased with cumulative tobacco exposure. WIHS women were statistically more likely to smoke than US women studied in NHANES III.

Conclusion

HIV infection is strongly associated with smoking behaviors that increase lung cancer risk. The role of HIV itself remains to be clarified.

Background

During the first two decades of the U.S. AIDS epidemic, and unlike some malignancies, breast cancer risk was significantly lower for women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection compared to the general population. This deficit in HIV-associated breast cancer could not be attributed to differences in survival, immune deficiency, childbearing or other breast cancer risk factors. HIV infects mononuclear immune cells by binding to the CD4 molecule and to CCR5 or CXCR4 chemokine coreceptors. Neoplastic breast cells commonly express CXCR4 but not CCR5. In vitro, binding HIV envelope protein to CXCR4 has been shown to induce apoptosis of neoplastic breast cells. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that breast cancer risk would be lower among women with CXCR4-tropic HIV infection.

Methods and Findings

We conducted a breast cancer nested case-control study among women who participated in the WIHS and HERS HIV cohort studies with longitudinally collected risk factor data and plasma. Cases were HIV-infected women (mean age 46 years) who had stored plasma collected within 24 months of breast cancer diagnosis and an HIV viral load ≥500 copies/mL. Three HIV-infected control women, without breast cancer, were matched to each case based on age and plasma collection date. CXCR4-tropism was determined by a phenotypic tropism assay. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for breast cancer were estimated by exact conditional logistic regression. Two (9%) of 23 breast cancer cases had CXCR4-tropic HIV, compared to 19 (28%) of 69 matched controls. Breast cancer risk was significantly and independently reduced with CXCR4 tropism (adjusted odds ratio, 0.10, 95% CI 0.002–0.84) and with menopause (adjusted odds ratio, 0.08, 95% CI 0.001–0.83). Adjustment for CD4+ cell count, HIV viral load, and use of antiretroviral therapy did not attenuate the association between infection with CXCR4-tropic HIV and breast cancer.

Conclusions

Low breast cancer risk with HIV is specifically linked to CXCR4-using variants of HIV. These variants are thought to exclusively bind to and signal through a receptor that is commonly expressed on hyperplastic and neoplastic breast duct cells. Additional studies are needed to confirm these observations and to understand how CXCR4 might reduce breast cancer risk.

Abstract

Objective

The objective was to assess study retention and attendance for two recruitment waves of participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

Methods

The WIHS, a prospective study at six clinical centers in the United States, has experienced two phases of participant recruitment. In phase one, women were screened and enrolled at the same time, and in phase two, women were screened and enrolled at separate visits. Compliance with study follow-up was evaluated by examining semiannual study retention and visit attendance.

Results

After 10 study visits, the retention rate in the original recruits (enrolled in 1994–1995) was 83% for the HIV-infected women and 69% for the HIV-uninfected women compared with 86% and 86%, respectively, in the new recruits (enrolled in 2001–2002). In logistic regression analysis of the HIV-infected women, factors associated with early (visits 2 and 3) nonattendance were temporary housing, moderate alcohol consumption, use of crack/cocaine/heroin, having a primary care provider, WIHS site of enrollment, lower CD4 cell count, and higher viral load. Among HIV-uninfected women, the factors associated with early nonattendance were recruitment into the original cohort, household income ≥$12,000 per year, temporary housing, unemployment, use of crack/cocaine/heroin, and WIHS site of enrollment. Factors associated with nonattendance at later visits (7–10) among HIV-infected participants were younger age, white race, not having a primary care provider, not having health insurance, WIHS site of enrollment, higher viral load, and nonattendance at a previous visit. In HIV-uninfected participants, younger age, white race, WIHS site of enrollment, and nonattendance at a previous visit were significantly associated with nonattendance at later visits.

Conclusions

Preventing early loss to follow-up resulted in better study retention early, but late loss to follow-up may require different retention strategies.

Background

To assess trends in mortality and cause of death for women with HIV, we studied deaths over a 10 year period among participants in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS), a representative US cohort.

Methods

Deaths were ascertained by National Death Index-Plus match and causes of death determined by death certificate.

Results

From 1995 through 2004, 710 of 2792 HIV-infected participants died. During this interval the standardized mortality ratio (SMR) fell from a high of 24.7 in 1996 to a plateau with a mean of 10.3 from 2001–2004. Over the decade, deaths from non-AIDs causes increased and accounted for the majority of deaths by 2001–2004. The most common non-AIDS causes of death were trauma or overdose, liver disease, cardiovascular disease and malignancy. Independent predictors of mortality besides HIV-associated variables were depressive symptoms, and active hepatitis B or C. Women who were overweight or obese were significantly less likely to die of AIDS than women of normal weight.

Conclusion

In the WIHS, the death rate has plateaued in recent years. While HIV-associated factors predicted AIDS and non-AIDS deaths, other treatable conditions predicted mortality. Further gains in reducing mortality among HIV-infected women may require broader access to therapies for depression, viral hepatitis and HIV itself.

Hazardous alcohol consumption among women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is associated with several adverse health and behavioral outcomes, but the proportion of HIV-positive women who engage in hazardous drinking over time is unclear. The authors sought to determine rates of hazardous alcohol consumption among these women over time and to identify factors associated with this behavior. Subjects were 2,770 HIV-positive women recruited from 6 US cities who participated in semiannual follow-up visits in the Women's Interagency HIV Study from 1995 to 2006. Hazardous alcohol consumption was defined as exceeding daily (≥4 drinks) or weekly (>7 drinks) consumption recommendations. Over the 11-year follow-up period, 14%–24% of the women reported past-year hazardous drinking, with a slight decrease in hazardous drinking over time. Women were significantly more likely to report hazardous drinking if they were unemployed, were not high school graduates, had been enrolled in the original cohort (1994–1995), had a CD4 cell count of 200–500 cells/mL, were hepatitis C-seropositive, or had symptoms of depression. Approximately 1 in 5 of the women met criteria for hazardous drinking. Interventions to identify and address hazardous drinking among HIV-positive women are urgently needed.

Objective

To estimate the incidence of invasive cervical cancer (ICC) in women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and compare it to that in HIV-uninfected women.

Methods

In a cohort study of HIV infected and uninfected women who had Pap tests obtained every six months, pathology reports were retrieved for women with biopsy or self-report of ICC. Histology was reviewed when reports confirmed ICC. Incidence rates were calculated and compared to those in HIV-negative women.

Results

After a median follow-up of 10.3 years, three ICCs were confirmed in HIV seropositive women, none in seronegative women. The ICC incidence rate was not significantly associated with HIV status (HIV negative: 0/100,000 person-years vs. HIV positive: 21.4/100,000 person-years; p=0.59). A calculated incidence rate ratio standardized to expected results from the Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results database restricted to the HIV-infected WIHS participants was 1.32 (95% CI: 0.27, 3.85; p=0.80).

Conclusion

Among women with HIV in a prospective study incorporating cervical cancer prevention measures, ICC incidence was not significantly higher than in a comparison group of HIV-negative women.

Objectives

To study anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) and its associations with anal and cervical human papillomavirus (HPV), cervical neoplasia, host immune status, and demographic and behavioral risk factors in women with and at risk for HIV infection.

Design

Point-prevalence analysis nested within a prospective study of women seen at three clinical centers of the Women’s Interagency HIV Study.

Methods

In 2001-2003 participants were interviewed, received a gynecological examination, anal and cervical cytology testing and, if abnormal, colposcopy or anoscopy-guided biopsy of visible lesions. Exfoliated cervical and anal specimens were assessed for HPV using PCR and type-specific HPV probing. Logistic regression analyses were performed and odds ratios (OR) estimated risks for AIN.

Results

470 HIV-infected and 185 HIV-uninfected women were enrolled. Low-grade AIN (LGAIN) was present in 12% of HIV-infected and 5% of HIV-uninfected women. High-grade AIN (HGAIN) was present in 9% of HIV-infected and 1% of HIV-uninfected women. In adjusted analyses among HIV-infected women, the risk factors for LGAIN were younger age (OR=0.59, 95%CI=0.36-0.97), history of receptive anal intercourse (OR=3.2, 95%CI=1.5-6.8), anal HPV (oncogenic types only OR=11, 95%CI=1.2-103; oncogenic and non-oncogenic types OR=11, 95%CI=1.3-96), and cervical HPV (oncogenic and non-oncogenic types OR=3.5, 95%CI=1.1-11). In multivariable analyses among HIV-infected women, the only significant risk factor for HGAIN was anal HPV infection (oncogenic and non-oncogenic types OR=7.6, 95%CI=1.5-38).

Conclusions

Even in the era of highly active antiviral therapy, the prevalence of AIN was 16% in HIV-infected women. After controlling for potential confounders, several risk factors for LGAIN differed from risk factors for HGAIN.

BACKGROUND

Cigarette smoking is an important risk factor for adverse health events in HIV-infected populations. While recent US population-wide surveys report annual sustained smoking cessation rates of 3.4–8.5%, prospective data are lacking on cessation rates for HIV-infected smokers.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the sustained tobacco cessation rate and predictors of cessation among women with or at risk for HIV infection.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 747 women (537 HIV-infected and 210 HIV-uninfected) who reported smoking at enrollment (1994–1995) in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) and remained in follow-up after 10 years. The participants were mostly minority (61% non-Hispanic Blacks and 22% Hispanics) and low income (68% with reported annual incomes of less than or equal to $12,000).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The primary outcome was defined as greater than 12 months continuous cessation at year 10. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify independent baseline predictors of subsequent tobacco cessation. A total of 121 (16%) women reported tobacco cessation at year 10 (annual sustained cessation rate of 1.8%, 95% CI 1.6–2.1%). Annual sustained cessation rates were 1.8% among both HIV-positive and HIV-negative women (p = 0.82). In multivariate analysis, the odds of tobacco cessation were significantly higher in women with more years of education (p trend = 0.02) and of Hispanic origin (OR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.4–2.9) compared to Black women. Cessation was significantly lower in current or former illicit drug users (OR = 0.42 95% CI = 0.24–0.74 and OR = 0.65, 95% CI = 0.49–0.86, respectively, p trend = 0.03) and women reporting a higher number of cigarettes per day at baseline (p trend < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected and at-risk women in this cohort have lower smoking cessation rates than the general population. Given the high prevalence of smoking, the high risk of adverse health events from smoking, and low rates of cessation, it is imperative that we increase efforts and overcome barriers to help these women quit smoking.

Objectives

To describe the incidence and risk factors for verrucae in HIV-infected and uninfected women.

Design and Methods

A prospective study of 1,790 HIV-infected and 772 uninfected women. Skin examinations and interviews were performed every six months over an 8-year study period. Data collected at each visit included antiretroviral therapy use since the prior visit, CD4 counts, HIV RNA loads, and location, description, and diagnosis of verrucae. Incidence rates of cutaneous and anogenital warts were determined.

Results

Unadjusted cumulative incidence of cutaneous warts for HIV-uninfected women was 6.6%, 6.7% for HIV-infected women who initiated HAART, and 8.4% for HIV-infected, HAART-naïve women. The unadjusted cumulative incidence of anogenital verrucae for HIV-uninfected women was 9.3%, 28.4% for HIV-infected women who initiated HAART, and 25.1% for HIV-infected women who were HAART-naïve. Multivariate proportional hazard models revealed the following significant factors for the development of cutaneous verrucae among HIV-infected women: Black race (RH=0.50) and Hispanic ethnicity (RH=0.38), compared to White race. Risk factors for anogenital verrucae were: more recent recruitment (RH=0.63), HPV infection at baseline (RH=1.85), decade of age (RH=0.82), current smoker (RH=1.40), lowest CD4 count (per 100 cells/mm3) in the past 4 years (RH=0.85), and log10 higher HIV viral load at the prior visit (RH=1.34).

Conclusions

HIV-infected women had a significantly increased cumulative incidence of anogenital verrucae compared to HIV-uninfected women. Although HAART did not alter the risk of developing skin or anogenital warts, those with higher CD4 cell counts and lower HIV RNA had a lower risk of developing anogenital warts.

Background

Acculturation status is associated with overweight and obesity among Latino adults, but the relationship between maternal acculturation and overweight in Latino children is inconsistent and has not been adequately studied.

Methods

We analyzed 3-year follow-up data from 185 Latina mothers and children who were recruited at San Francisco General Hospital. Outcome measure was the child’s body mass index at age 3 years, adjusted for age and sex and categorized as healthy (<85%) or overweight (≥85%). Independent variables were maternal acculturation status, child health status, and child nutritional factors.

Results

At age 3 years, 43% of children were overweight. In multivariate logistic regression analyses, childhood overweight was associated with maternal acculturation status (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.99, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.07–3.69) and maternal obesity (OR 3.71, 95% CI 1.40–9.84). Childhood overweight was also more likely among children who were reported to eat well or very well (OR 3.33, 95% CI 1.46–7.58) and children whose weight was perceived as too high (OR 11.88, 95% CI 2.37–59.60), as compared to children who were reported to eat poorly/not well and children whose weight was perceived as normal, respectively.

Conclusions

Interventions to reduce the high rates of overweight among young Latino children should address the importance of maternal acculturation and obesity as well as maternal perceptions of children’s weight and eating habits.