Abstract

CCR5 is the primary coreceptor for HIV entry. Early after infection, the HIV viral population diversifies rapidly into a quasispecies. It is not known whether the initial efficiency of the viral quasispecies to utilize CCR5 is associated with HIV disease progression or if it changes in an infected individual over time. The CCR5 and CXCR4 utilization efficiencies (R5-UE and X4-UE) of the HIV quasispecies were examined using a pseudovirus, single-round infection assay for samples obtained from known seroconverters from Rakai district, Uganda (n=88). Initial and longitudinal R5-UE values were examined to assess the association of R5-UE with HIV disease progression using multivariate Cox proportional hazard models. Longitudinal samples were analyzed for 35 seroconverters who had samples available from multiple time points. There was no association between initial or longitudinal changes in R5-UE and the hazard of HIV disease progression (p=0.225 and p=0.942, respectively). In addition, R5-UE increased significantly over time after HIV seroconversion (p<0.001), regardless of HIV subtype or the emergence of CXCR4-tropic virus. These data demonstrate that the R5-UE of the viral quasispecies early in HIV infection is not associated with disease progression, and that R5-UE levels increase in HIV-infected individuals over time.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has recently been used for analysis of HIV diversity, but this method is labor-intensive, costly, and requires complex protocols for data analysis. We compared diversity measures obtained using NGS data to those obtained using a diversity assay based on high-resolution melting (HRM) of DNA duplexes. The HRM diversity assay provides a single numeric score that reflects the level of diversity in the region analyzed. HIV gag and env from individuals in Rakai, Uganda, were analyzed in a previous study using NGS (n = 220 samples from 110 individuals). Three sequence-based diversity measures were calculated from the NGS sequence data (percent diversity, percent complexity, and Shannon entropy). The amplicon pools used for NGS were analyzed with the HRM diversity assay. HRM scores were significantly associated with sequence-based measures of HIV diversity for both gag and env (P < 0.001 for all measures). The level of diversity measured by the HRM diversity assay and NGS increased over time in both regions analyzed (P < 0.001 for all measures except for percent complexity in gag), and similar amounts of diversification were observed with both methods (P < 0.001 for all measures except for percent complexity in gag). Diversity measures obtained using the HRM diversity assay were significantly associated with those from NGS, and similar increases in diversity over time were detected by both methods. The HRM diversity assay is faster and less expensive than NGS, facilitating rapid analysis of large studies of HIV diversity and evolution.

Male circumcision reduces acquisition of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in men. We assessed whether male circumcision reduces HSV-2 infection among female partners. HSV-2–negative, human immunodeficiency virus–negative female partners of 368 males who were and 372 males who were not randomized to receive male circumcision were enrolled. The incidence of HSV-2 infection among females over a period of 2 years was 6.09 cases per 100 person-years in the intervention arm and 6.32 cases per 100 person-years in the control arm (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 0.96 [95% confidence interval {CI}, .62–1.49]; P = .87). Among female partners of HSV-2–positive males, the incidence of HSV-2 infection was 9.55 cases per 100 person-years in the intervention arm and 11.17 cases per 100 person-years in the control arm (IRR, 0.85 [95% CI, .44–1.67]; P = .62). Contrary to findings in males, male circumcision did not affect HSV-2 acquisition among female partners.

Male circumcision (MC) reduces penile high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) on the coronal sulcus and urethra. HR-HPV varies by anatomic site, and it is unknown whether MC decreases HR-HPV on the penile shaft. We assessed the efficacy of MC to reduce HR-HPV on the penile shaft and compared it to known efficacy of MC to reduce HR-HPV on the coronal sulcus. HIV-negative men randomized to receive immediate circumcision (intervention) or circumcision delayed for 24 months (control) were evaluated for HR-HPV at 12 months post-enrollment using the Roche HPV Linear Array assay. Among swabs with detectable beta-globin or HPV, year 1 HR-HPV prevalence on the coronal sulcus was 21.5% in the intervention arm and 36.3% in the control arm men (adjusted prevalence risk ratios (PRR)=0.57, 95%CI 0.39–0.84, p=0.005). On the shaft, year 1 HR-HPV prevalence was 15.5% in the intervention and 23.8% in the control arm (adjusted PRR=0.66, 95%CI 0.39–1.12, p=0.12). Efficacy of MC to reduce HR-HPV on the shaft was similar to efficacy on the coronal sulcus (p=0.52). In a sensitivity analysis in which swabs without detectable beta-globin or HPV were included as HPV negative, prevalence of HR-HPV on the shaft was lower in the intervention arm (7.8%) than control arm (13.6%) (PRR 0.57, 95%CI 0.33–0.99, p<0.05). HR-HPV was more frequently detected on the coronal sulcus than penile shaft among uncircumcised men (36.3% vs 23.8%, respectively, p=0.02) and circumcised men (21.5% vs 15.5%, respectively, p=0.24). MC reduced HR-HPV prevalence on both the coronal sulcus and shaft.

Background

Traditional herbal medicines are commonly used in sub-Saharan Africa and some herbs are known to be hepatotoxic. However little is known about the effect of herbal medicines on liver disease in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

500 HIV-infected participants in a rural HIV care program in Rakai, Uganda, were frequency matched to 500 HIV-uninfected participants. Participants were asked about traditional herbal medicine use and assessed for other potential risk factors for liver disease. All participants underwent transient elastography (FibroScan®) to quantify liver fibrosis. The association between herb use and significant liver fibrosis was measured with adjusted prevalence risk ratios (adjPRR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using modified Poisson multivariable logistic regression.

Results

19 unique herbs from 13 plant families were used by 42/1000 of all participants, including 9/500 HIV-infected participants. The three most-used plant families were Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae. Among all participants, use of any herb (adjPRR = 2.2, 95% CI 1.3–3.5, p = 0.002), herbs from the Asteraceae family (adjPRR = 5.0, 95% CI 2.9–8.7, p<0.001), and herbs from the Lamiaceae family (adjPRR = 3.4, 95% CI 1.2–9.2, p = 0.017) were associated with significant liver fibrosis. Among HIV infected participants, use of any herb (adjPRR = 2.3, 95% CI 1.0–5.0, p = 0.044) and use of herbs from the Asteraceae family (adjPRR = 5.0, 95% CI 1.7–14.7, p = 0.004) were associated with increased liver fibrosis.

Conclusions

Traditional herbal medicine use was independently associated with a substantial increase in significant liver fibrosis in both HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected study participants. Pharmacokinetic and prospective clinical studies are needed to inform herb safety recommendations in sub-Saharan Africa. Counseling about herb use should be part of routine health counseling and counseling of HIV-infected persons in Uganda.

Background

Large datasets for investigating vaginal flora change at frequent, repeated intervals are limited and graphical methods for exploring such data are inadequate. We report 2-year weekly vaginal flora changes based on Gram stain using lasagna plots.

Methods

Weekly vaginal flora patterns were evaluated among 211 sexually experienced women with 18 months or more of follow-up in Rakai, Uganda. Vaginal flora swabs were self-collected weekly and categorized by Nugent Gram stain criteria (0–3, normal; 4–6, intermediate; 7–10, BV). Vaginal flora patterns were analyzed as the percentage of weekly observations with BV (longitudinal prevalence) and illustrated by lasagna plots. Characteristics of women were compared across tertiles of longitudinal prevalence of BV.

Results

Ninety-five percent of women had at least 1 episode of BV over 2 years with one-third of women spending over half (52–100%) of their time with BV. Vaginal pH > 4.5 increased with increasing tertiles of longitudinal prevalence of BV (p < 0.001). Weekly fluctuation in vaginal flora states, as measured by a change in flora states from the prior to current visit, was highest in the middle (41.9%) compared to the lower (30.1%) and upper tertiles (27.8%, p < 0.001). HIV status and reported vaginal symptoms did not differ significantly across BV tertiles.

Conclusions

Women exhibited different patterns of vaginal flora changes over time, which could not be described by baseline behaviors. Lasagna plots aided in describing the natural history of BV within and across women and may be applied to future BV natural history studies.

It has been hypothesized that increased HIV acquisition in uncircumcised men may relate to a more thinly keratinized inner foreskin. However, published data are contradictory and potentially confounded by medical indications for circumcision. We tested the hypothesis that the inner foreskin was more thinly keratinized than the outer foreskin using tissues from 19 healthy, HIV-uninfected men undergoing routine prophylactic circumcision in Rakai, Uganda. Sections from 3 foreskin anatomic sites (inner, outer, and frenar band) were snap-frozen separately. Two independent laboratories each separately stained, imaged, and measured keratin thicknesses in a blinded fashion. There was no significant difference in keratin thickness between the inner (mean = 14.67±7.48 µm) and outer (mean = 13.30±8.49 µm) foreskin, or between the inner foreskin and the frenar band (mean = 16.91±12.42 µm). While the frenar band showed the greatest intra-individual heterogeneity in keratin thickness, there was substantial inter-individual variation seen in all regions. Measurements made by the two laboratories showed high correlation (r = 0.741, 95% CI, 0.533–0.864). We conclude that, despite inter- and intra-individual variability, keratin thickness was similar in the inner and outer foreskin of healthy Ugandan men, and that reduced keratin thickness is not likely to make the inner foreskin more susceptible to HIV acquisition.

Background. Male circumcision reduces human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) acquisition, and HSV-2 infection is associated with an increased risk of HIV acquisition. To assess the cellular basis for these associations, we estimated immunologic cellular densities in foreskin tissue.

Methods. Immunostained CD1a+ dendritic cell and CD4+ and CD8+ T cell densities were quantified in foreskin samples obtained from medical circumcision in Rakai, Uganda (35 HIV-infected, HSV-2-infected men; 5 HIV-infected, HSV-2-uninfected men; 22 HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-infected men; and 29 HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-uninfected men.

Results. CD1A+ dendritic cell densities did not vary by HIV or HSV-2 status. Compared with densities in HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-uninfected men (mean, 26.8 cells/mm2), CD4+ T cell densities were similar in the HIV-infected, HSV-2-infected group (mean, 28.7 cells/mm2), were significantly decreased in the HIV-infected, HSV-2-uninfected group (mean, 11.2; P < .05), and were increased in the HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-infected group (mean, 68.7; P < .05). Dermal CD8+ T cell densities were higher in the HIV and HSV-2-coinfected group (mean, 102.9) than in the HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-uninfected group (mean, 10.0; P < .001), the HIV-infected, HSV-2-uninfected group (mean, 27.3; P < .001), and the HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-infected group (mean, 25.3; P < .005).

Discussion. The increased CD4+ cellular density in the HIV-uninfected, HSV-2-infected men may help to explain why HSV-2–infected men are at increased risk of HIV acquisition. The absence of this increase in men coinfected with both HIV and HSV-2 is likely in part the result of the progressive loss of CD4+ cells in HIV infection. Conversely, HIV and HSV-2 coinfection appears to synergistically increase CD8+ T cell densities.

Study Objective

To describe changes in vaginal microbiota and pH over time among never sexually active adolescents at different menarcheal stages.

Design

A cohort of 49 sexually inexperienced Ugandan adolescents provided weekly self-collected vaginal swabs and behavioral/health information for up to two years. Menarcheal stage was classified as: not experiencing menarche during follow-up (premenarcheal, n=9), achieving menarche during follow-up (perimenarcheal, n=20), and being postmenarcheal (n=20) at enrollment. Vaginal microbiota were characterized as morphotypes of large Gram-positive rods, small Gram-negative or variable rods, and curved Gram-negative rods based on Nugent Gram-stain criteria. Baseline measures were compared using nonparametric tests. Mean changes (β) in morphotypes and pH over time were estimated using longitudinal mixed-effects models.

Results

The baseline median (IQR: interquartile range) Nugent score was 8 (7-8) in premenarcheal, 4.5 (1-8) in perimenarcheal, and 1 (0-3) in postmenarcheal girls (p=0.001). For each respective menarcheal stage, the median counts of (IQR) Gram-positive rods were 0 (0-0), 10 (0-30), and 30 (18-30) (p=0.002) and Gram-negative or variable rods were 30 (30-30), 16 (0.5-30), and 0.5 (0-2.5) (p=0.002) at enrollment. Counts of Gram-positive rods increased (β = 0.259, 95% CI: 0.156, 0.362) and Gram-negative or variable rods decreased (β = -0.201, 95% CI:-0.298,-0.103) significantly over time in premenarcheal girls, but not in other groups. Vaginal pH declined significantly in peri- and postmenarcheal girls only.

Conclusion

Vaginal microbiota composition varied by menarcheal stage at enrollment. Over time, significant changes in vaginal morphotypes occurred in premenarcheal girls, suggesting this may be an important period of transition.

Background

High viral load (VL) setpoint is a marker for rapid HIV progression, but few studies have examined whether use of hormonal contraception (HC) prior to HIV seroconversion affects VL setpoint.

Methods

We determined VL setpoints in 285 HIV seroconverters using blood samples collected six months or more after estimated HIV seroconversion but before disease progression to CD4≤250 or WHO Stage 3 or 4. We used multivariate linear regression to estimate the effect of HC use prior to HIV seroconversion on VL setpoint, and multivariate Cox regression to estimate the hazards ratio of death associated with VL setpoint.

Results

Of 285 women, 42 (15%) reported using HC prior to HIV seroconversion. Mean VL setpoint was 4.49 (SD 0.79) log10 copies/mL among women who used HC prior to HIV seroconversion and 4.47 (SD 0.86) among non-HC users (p=0.88). In multivariate analysis, HC prior to HIV seroconversion was not associated with VL setpoint (+0.11 log10 copies /mL; p=0.47). Higher socioeconomic status was associated with lower VL setpoint (-0.43 log10 copies/mL; p=0.04). VL setpoints above the median were associated with faster time to death (adjHR: 2.54, 95% CI: 1.30-4.98, p-value <0.01).

Conclusions

Use of HC prior to HIV seroconversion was not associated with elevated VL setpoint.

HIV superinfection, which occurs when a previously infected individual acquires a new distinct HIV strain, has been described in a number of populations. Previous methods to detect superinfection have involved a combination of labor-intensive assays with various rates of success. We designed and tested a next-generation sequencing (NGS) protocol to identify HIV superinfection by targeting two regions of the HIV viral genome, p24 and gp41. The method was validated by mixing control samples infected with HIV subtype A or D at different ratios to determine the inter- and intrasubtype sensitivity by NGS. This amplicon-based NGS protocol was able to consistently identify distinct intersubtype strains at ratios of 1% and intrasubtype variants at ratios of 5%. By using stored samples from the Rakai Community Cohort Study (RCCS) in Uganda, 11 individuals who were HIV seroconcordant but virally unlinked from their spouses were then tested by this method to detect superinfection between 2002 and 2005. Two female cases of HIV intersubtype superinfection (18.2%) were identified. These results are consistent with other African studies and support the hypothesis that HIV superinfection occurs at a relatively high rate. Our results indicate that NGS can be used for detection of HIV superinfection within large cohorts, which could assist in determining the incidence and the epidemiologic, virologic, and immunological correlates of this phenomenon.

HIV and hepatitis B virus (HBV) co-infection poses important public health considerations in resource-limited settings. Demographic data and sera from adult participants of the Rakai Health Sciences Program Cohort in Southwestern Uganda were examined to determine HBV seroprevalence patterns in this area of high HIV endemicity prior to the introduction of antiretroviral therapy. Commercially available EIAs were used to detect prevalent HBV infection (positive for HBV core antibody [anti-HBc] and/or positive HBV surface antigen [HBsAg]), and chronic infection (positive for HBsAg). Of 438 participants, 181 (41%) had prevalent HBV infection while 21 (5%) were infected chronically. Fourteen percent of participants were infected with HIV. Fifty three percent showed evidence of prevalent HBV infection compared to 40% among participants infected with HIV (p=0.067). Seven percent of participants infected with HIV were HBsAg positive compared to 4% among participants not infected with HIV (p=0.403). The prevalence of prevalent HBV infection was 55% in adults aged >50 years old, and 11% in persons under 20 years. In multivariable analysis, older age, HIV status and serologic syphilis were significantly associated with prevalent HBV infection. Transfusion status and receipt of injections were not significantly associated with HBV infection. Contrary to expectations that HBV exposure in Uganda occurred chiefly during childhood, prevalent HBV infection was found to increase with age and was associated sexually transmitted diseases (HIV and syphilis.) Therefore vaccination against HBV, particularly susceptible adults with HIV or at risk of HIV/STDs should be a priority.

Objective

To evaluate the impact of antiretroviral therapy (ART) on HIV-1 transmission rates among HIV-1 discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda.

Design

Observational cohort study.

Methods

HIV-1 discordant couples were retrospectively identified between 2004 and 2009. Study participants underwent annual screening for HIV-1 and were interviewed to evaluate risk behaviors. Participants were offered voluntary counseling and testing and provided with risk reduction counseling. Free ART was offered to participants with a CD4 cell count of 250 cells/μl or less or WHO stage IV disease. HIV-1 incidence and sexual risk behaviors were compared before and after the HIV-1-positive index partners started ART.

Results

Two hundred and fifty HIV-1 discordant couples were followed between 2004 and 2009 and 32 HIV-1-positive partners initiated ART. Forty-two HIV-1 transmissions occurred over 459.4 person-years prior to ART initiation, incidence 9.2/100 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI) 6.59–12.36]. In 32 couples in which the HIV-1 index partners started ART, no HIV-1 transmissions occurred during 53.6 person-years. The 95% CI for the incidence rate difference was −11.91 to −6.38 (P=0.0097). Couples reported more consistent condom use during ART use, but there was no significant difference in the number of sexual partners or other risk behaviors. Viral load was markedly reduced in persons on ART.

Conclusion

HIV-1 transmission may be reduced among HIV-1 discordant couples after initiation of ART due to reductions in HIV-1 viral load and increased consistent condom use.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a common sexually transmitted disease of growing public health importance, and over 40 genotypes have been identified in genital infections. Current HPV cohort studies often follow participants at pre-determined visits, such as every 6-months, and data generated from such epidemiology studies can be described as clustered longitudinal binary data where correlation arises in two ways: the directionless clustering due to the multiple genotypes tested within an individual, and the temporal correlation among the repeated measurements on the same genotype along time. Current analyses for identification of risk factors associated with HPV incidence and persistence often either do not fully utilize information in the dataset or ignore the correlation between the multiple genotypes. Given the scientific definition of incidence and persistence, conditional probability modeling provides us a natural mathematical tool. We thus present a semi-parametric regression model for such data where full specification of the joint multivariate binary distribution is avoided by using conditioning argument to handle the temporal correlation and GEE to account for the correlation between the multiple genotypes. The model is applied to the HPV data from the Rakai male circumcision (MC) trial to evaluate the as-treated efficacy of MC and also identify modifiable risk factors for incidence and persistence of oncogenic HPV types in men. A simulation study is performed to provide empirical information on the number of individuals that is needed for satisfactory power and estimation accuracy of the association parameter estimates in future studies.

Abstract

HIV-1 subtype D (HIV-1D) progresses to disease faster and has lower transmissibility than subtype A (HIV-1A). We examined whether these differences could lead to a population level change in the distribution of these subtypes over time. HIV-1 viral RNA was extracted from stored serum samples from HIV-positive subjects participating in a population-based cohort study in Rakai, Uganda in 1994 and 2002. Portions of the viral proteins gag and gp41 were sequenced and subtyped. HIV-1 subtype assignments were generated for 773 subjects in 1994 and 812 subjects in 2002. The change in subtype distribution of the population as a whole as well as quartile age groups were examined for significant changes using a linear model. There was a significant decrease in the proportion of subjects infected with HIV-1D from 70.2% to 62.4% and a significant increase in subjects infected with HIV-1A from 16.7% to 23.3% over the 8-year period (p = 0.005). The most marked changes in proportion of HIV-1D and A were seen in the younger individuals (<25 and 25–30 years; p < 0.05). The percentages of subjects infected with HIV-1C and recombinant subtypes did not change significantly. Over this 8-year period, the overall viral population in this region evolved toward the less virulent HIV-1A strain, most likely as a consequence of the faster disease progression and lower transmissibility of HIV-1D.

Disclosure of HIV seropositive results among HIV-discordant couples in sub-Saharan Africa is generally low. We describe a facilitated couple counselling approach to enhance disclosure among HIV-discordant couples.

Using unique identifiers, 293 HIV-discordant couples were identified through retrospective linkage of married or cohabiting consenting adults individually enrolled into a cohort study and into two randomized trials of male circumcision in Rakai, Uganda. HIV discordant couples and a random sample of HIV-infected concordant and HIV-negative concordant couples (to mask HIV status) were invited to sensitization meetings to discuss the benefits of disclosure and couple counselling. HIV-infected partners were subsequently contacted to encourage HIV disclosure to their HIV uninfected partners. If the index positive partner agreed, the counsellor facilitated the disclosure of HIV results, and provided ongoing support. The proportion of disclosure was determined.

81% of HIV-positive partners in discordant relationships disclosed their status to their HIV-uninfected partners in the presence of the counsellor. The rates of disclosure were 81.3% in male HIV-positive and 80.2% in female HIV-positive discordant couples. Disclosure did not vary by age, education or occupation.

In summary, disclosure of HIV-positive results in discordant couples using facilitated couple counselling approach is high, but requires a stepwise process of sensitization and agreement by the infected partner.

Background

We used self-administered vaginal swabs to assess the incidence and clearance of carcinogenic HPV infections in rural Rakai, Uganda.

Methods

Women provided self-administered vaginal swab at annual, home-based visits. Type-specific carcinogenic HPV incidence and clearance, and risk-factors were assessed.

Results

Carcinogenic HPV incidence was 17.3/100 person-years (PY) among HIV-positive, compared with 7.0/100 PY among HIV-negative women (p<0.001). HPV-51 had the highest incidence followed by HPV-16 (1.8/100 PY, and 1.5/100 PY, respectively). In multivariate model, HIV-positive women were twice as likely to have incident infection compared to HIV-negatives. Younger women were at higher risk for incident infection, as were women with higher lifetime and recent sexual partners, and high perception of AIDS. Married women were less likely to have incident infection. Approximately half of all carcinogenic HPV infections cleared over the study follow-up of three years. HPV-31, 35, and 16 had the lowest clearance (16.7%, 27.9%, and 38.3%, respectively). In multivariate model, HIV-positives, women over 30, higher HPV viral burden, and more lifetime sex partners were less likely to clear infections.

Conclusions

Self-collected vaginal swabs provide accurate HPV exposure assessment for studying the HPV exposure and epidemiology, and can be an important tool for research in populations unwilling to undergo pelvic exam.

Introduction

Microbial translocation has been implicated as a contributing factor to the heightened immune activation observed during HIV-1 disease progression. When examined in a longitudinal study of HIV-1 seroconverters in Rakai, Uganda microbial translocation was not associated with HIV-1 disease progression. However, the role of general immune activation in HIV disease progression in this population was not fully examined.

Methods

Longitudinal serum samples of HIV-1 seroconverters in three HIV-1 disease progression groups [long-term nonprogressors (LTNP), standard progressors (SP), and rapid progressors (RP)] from Rakai, Uganda, were tested for levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker for immune activation.

Results

CRP levels significantly increased in the SP group (p<0.0001), but not in the RP group or the LTNP group. CRP levels during the first year post-HIV-seroconversion in the RP group were significantly higher than those observed in the LTNP group (p<0.05). For the entire population CRP levels negatively correlated with Lipopolysaccharide levels (p<0.05) and were not associated with endotoxin antibody levels.

Conclusions

This study suggests that in this population increased immune activation is significantly associated with HIV-1 disease progression, but not microbial translocation.

Background

Male circumcision (MC) reduces high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) in HIV-uninfected men and their female partners. We assessed whether MC of HIV-infected men reduces HR-HPV infection in their female partners.

Methods

Female partners of married HIV-infected men with CD4 counts >350 cells/mL randomized to immediate MC (intervention, n=211) and delayed MC (control, n=171) were evaluated for HR-HPV in vaginal swabs by Roche HPV Linear Array. Prevalence risk and incident rate ratios (PRR and IRR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) of HR-HPV were estimated by Poisson multiple regression using an intention-to-treat analysis. In women with pre-existing HR-HPV, we estimated the risk ratio (RR) of clearance of infection (i.e., loss of detection). The trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00124878.

Findings

Female characteristics and HPV prevalence were generally similar between arms at enrollment, except the intervention arm women were younger (p=0.04). Female HR-HPV prevalence at enrollment was 67.0% in intervention arm and 61.9% in control arm p=0.33. Two year female retention rates were 75.8% (160/211) in the intervention arm and 77.2% (132/171) in the control arm. Female HR-HPV prevalence at year two was 55.4% in intervention arm and 51.9% in control arm (PRR = 1.07, 95%CI0.86–1.32, p=0.64). HR-HPV incidence over 2 years was 32.0/100py in intervention arm and 30.6/100py in control arm female partners (IRR=1.05, 95%CI 0.77–1.43, p=0.78). There was no difference in female genotype-specific HR-HPV clearance by study arm (RR=0.96, 95%CI 0.83–1.11, p=0.61).

Interpretation

Contrary to findings in HIV-negative men, male circumcision of HIV-infected men did not affect HR-HPV transmission to female partners.

Funding

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and National Institutes of Health.

Background

Liver disease is a leading cause of mortality among HIV-infected persons in the US and Europe; however, data regarding effects of HIV and anti-retroviral therapy (ART) on liver disease in Africa remains sparse.

Methods

500 HIV-infected participants in an HIV care program in Rakai, Uganda were frequency-matched by age, gender and site to 500 HIV-uninfected participants in a population cohort. All participants underwent transient elastography (FibroScan®) to quantify liver stiffness measurements (LSM) and identify participants with significant liver fibrosis, defined as LSM ≥9.3 kPa (≈ Metavir F ≥2). 962 (96 %) of participants had valid LSM data. Risk factors for liver fibrosis were identified by estimating adjusted prevalence risk ratios (adjPRR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using modified Poisson multivariate regression.

Findings

The prevalence of significant fibrosis was 17% among HIV-infected and 11% in HIV-uninfected participants (p =0.008). In multivariate analysis, HIV infection was associated with a 50% increase in liver fibrosis (adjPRR 1.5, 95%CI 1.1–2.1; p=0.010). Fibrosis was also associated with male gender (adjPRR 1.4, 95% CI 1.0–1.9; p=0.045), herbal medicine use (adjPRR 2.0, 95%CI 1.2–3.3; p=0.005), heavy alcohol consumption (adjPRR 2.3, 95% CI 1.3–3.9; 0.005), occupational fishing (adjPRR 2.5, 1.2–5.3; p=0.019), and chronic HBV infection (adjPRR 1.7, 95% CI 1.0–3.1; p=0.058). Among HIV-infected participants, ART appeared to reduce fibrosis risk (adjPRR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4–1.0; p=0.030).

Interpretation

The burden of liver fibrosis among rural Ugandans is high, particularly among persons with HIV infection. These data suggest that liver disease may represent a significant cause of HIV-related morbidity and mortality in Africa; clarifying the etiology of liver disease in this population is a research priority.

Introduction

Male circumcision reduces HIV acquisition in men. We assessed whether foreskin surface area was associated with HIV acquisition prior to circumcision.

Methods

In two randomized trials of male circumcision, the surface area of the foreskin was measured after surgery using standardized procedures. Nine hundred and sixty-five initially HIV-negative men were enrolled in a community cohort who subsequently enrolled in the male circumcision trials, provided 3920.8 person-years of observation prior to circumcision. We estimated HIV incidence per 100 person-years prior to circumcision, associated with foreskin surface area categorized into quartiles.

Results

Mean foreskin surface area was significantly higher among men who acquired HIV (43.3 cm2, standard error 2.1) compared with men who remained uninfected (36.8 cm2, standard error 0.5, P = 0.01). HIV incidence was 0.80/100 person-years (8/994.9 person-years) for men with foreskin surface areas in the lowest quartile ( ≤26.3 cm2), 0.92/100 person-years (9/975.3 person-years) with foreskin areas in the second quartile (26.4–35.0 cm2), 0.90/100 person-years (8/888.5 person-years) with foreskin area in the third quartile (35.2–45.5 cm2) and 2.48/100 person-years (23/926.8 person-years) in men with foreskin surfaces areas in the highest quartile (>45.6 cm2). Compared with men with foreskin surface areas in the lowest quartile, the adjusted incidence rate ratio of HIV acquisition was 2.37 (95% confidence interval 1.05–5.31) in men with the largest quartile of foreskin surface area.

Conclusion

The risk of male HIV acquisition is increased among men with larger foreskin surface areas.

Background

Randomized trials show that medical male circumcision (MC) reduces high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) infection in men. We assessed the efficacy of MC to reduce HR-HPV in female partners.

Methods

HIV-negative men were randomized to immediate MC (intervention) or MC delayed for 24 months (control). HIV-uninfected female partners of married men (648 intervention and 597 control arm) were simultaneously enrolled and provided interview information and self-collected vaginal swabs at baseline, 12 and 24 months. Female HPV infection was a secondary trial end point. Vaginal swabs were evaluated for HR-HPV by Roche HPV Linear Array. An intention-to-treat analysis estimated prevalence risk and incident rate ratios (PRR and IRR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) of HR-HPV by Poisson multiple regression. In women with pre-existing HR-HPV, we estimated the risk ratio (RR) of cleared infection (i.e., loss of detection). The trials were registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00425984 and NCT00124878.)

Findings

Female characteristics and HPV prevalence were similar between arms at enrollment. Two year retention rates were 84.7% (549/648) in intervention arm and 84.1% (502/597) in control arm spouses. Year 2 female HR-HPV prevalence was 27.8% (151/544) in the intervention and 38.7% (189/488) in the control arm (PRR=0.72, 95%CI 0.60–0.85, p=0.001). HR-HPV incidence was 20.7/100py in the intervention arm and 26.9/100py in the control arm wives (IRR=0.77, 95%CI 0.63-0.93, p=0.008). HR-HPV incidence was lower in intervention than control arm wives for 13 of 14 (92.9%) HR-HPV genotypes and in most demographic/behavioral subgroups. Genotype specific HR-HPV clearance was higher in the wives of men in the intervention arm (66.2%, 376/568) than the control arm (59.2%, 339/573, RR=1.12, 95%CI 1.02-1.22).

Interpretation

MC reduces the prevalence and incidence and increases clearance of HR-HPV infections in female partners.

Funding

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation with additional laboratory and training support from National Institutes of Health and Fogarty International Center.

In Rakai, Uganda, HIV+ men were randomized to immediate (intervention) or delayed circumcision (controls). Penile swabs were assayed for high risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) by Roche HPV Linear Array at enrollment and 24 months (intervention n=103, control n=107). Rate ratios (RR) of HR-HPV were estimated by Poisson regression. At 24 months, HR-HPV prevalence was intervention 55.3% and control 71.7% (RR=0.77, 95%CI 0.62–0.97). Multiple HR-HPV infections were intervention 22.4% and controls 42.5% (RR=0.53, 95%CI 0.33–0.83). New HR-HPV genotypes were acquired by 42.0% of intervention and 57.0% of control arm men (RR=0.74, 95%CI 0.54–1.01, p=0.06). Multiple new HR-HPV genotypes were acquired by 9.9% intervention and 24.7% control arm men (RR = 0.40, 95%CI 0.19–0.84, p = 0.01). Circumcision did not affect the acquisition of single HR-HPV infections (RR=1.00, 95%CI 0.65–1.53) or clearance of HR-HPV (RR=1.09, 95%CI 0.94–1.27). Circumcision of HIV+ men reduced the prevalence and incidence of multiple HR-HPV infections.

Uncircumcised HIV-negative men aged 15-49 years were randomized to immediate circumcision (n=441) or delayed circumcision (n=399). HPV was detected by Roche HPV Linear Array at enrollment, 6, 12 and 24 months. Incident HR-HPV was estimated in men who acquired a new HR-HPV genotype. HR-HPV clearance was determined in men with prior genotype-specific HR-HPV infections. Rate ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) of HR-HPV acquisition were estimated by Poisson multiple regression

Enrollment characteristics were comparable between groups. HR-HPV incidence was 19.7/100 py in the intervention (70/355.8 py) and 29.4/100 py (125/424.8 py) in the control arm (RR=0.67, 95%CI 0.51-0.89, p = 0.006.) The incidence of multiple HR-HPV infections was 6.7/100 py in the intervention and 14.8/100 py in control arm (RR = 0.45, 95%CI 0.28-0.73), but there was no significant effect on single infections (RR=0.89, 95%CI 0.60-1.30). HR-HPV incidence was lower in the intervention arm for all genotypes and demographic/behavioral subgroups. The clearance of pre-existing HR-HPV infections was 215.8/100py (205/95 py) in intervention and 159.1/100py (255/160.25 py) in control arm men (adjRR=1.39, 95%CI 1.17-1.64).

Male circumcision reduces the incidence of multiple HR-HPV infections and increases clearance of HR-HPV infections in HIV-uninfected men.

The trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov numbers NCT00425984

HIV-1 disease progression is associated with persistent immune activation. However, the nature of this association is incompletely understood. Here, we investigated immune activation in the CD4 T cell compartment of chronically HIV-1 infected individuals from Rakai, Uganda. Levels of CD4 T cell activation, assessed as co-expression of PD-1, CD38 and HLA-DR, correlated directly to viral load and inversely to CD4 count. Deeper characterization of these cells indicated an effector memory phenotype with relatively frequent expression of Ki67 despite their PD-1 expression, and levels of these cells were inversely associated with FoxP3+ regulatory T cells. We therefore use the term deregulated effector memory (DEM) cells to describe them. CD4 T cells with a DEM phenotype could be generated by antigen stimulation of recall responses in vitro. Responses against HIV-1 and CMV antigens were enriched among the DEM CD4 T cells in patients, and the diverse Vβ repertoire of DEM CD4 T cells suggested they include diverse antigen-specificities. Furthermore, the levels of DEM CD4 T cells correlated directly to soluble CD14 (sCD14) and IL-6, markers of innate immune activation, in plasma. The size of the activated DEM CD4 T cell subset was predictive of the rate of disease progression, whereas IL-6 was only weakly predictive and sCD14 was not predictive. Taken together, these results are consistent with a model where systemic innate immune activation and chronic antigen stimulation of adaptive T cell responses both play important roles in driving pathological CD4 T cell immune activation in HIV-1 disease.