Aims

To characterize factors associated with injection cessation, relapse and initiation.

Design

MIDACS is a prospective cohort of injection drug users (IDUs) recruited in 2005–06 with semi-annual follow-up through 2009. Discrete-time survival models were used to characterize predictors of time to first injection cessation and relapse.

Setting

Chennai, India

Participants

855 IDUs who reported injecting in the six months prior to baseline and had > 1 follow-up visit.

Measurements

Cessation was defined as the first visit where no injection drug use was reported (prior six months) and relapse as the first visit where drug injection (prior six months) was reported after first cessation.

Findings

All participants were male; median age was 35. Over three years, 92.7% reported cessation (incidence rate [IR]: 117 per 100 person-years). Factors positively associated with cessation included daily injection and incarceration and factors negatively associated with cessation included marriage, alcohol and homelessness. Of those who reported cessation, 24% relapsed (IR: 19.7 per 100 person-years). Factors positively associated with relapse included any education, injection in the month prior to baseline, sex with a casual partner, non-injection drug use, incarceration and homelessness. Alcohol was negatively associated with relapse. The primary reasons for cessation were medical conditions (36%) and family pressure (22%). The majority initiated with non-injection drugs, transitioning to injection after a median 4 years.

Conclusions

Injection drug users in Southern India demonstrate a high rate of injection cessation over three years, but relapse is not uncommon. Compensatory increases in alcohol use indicate that cessation of injection does not mean cessation of all substance use. Family pressure, concerns about general health, fear of HIV infection, and a history of non-injection drug use are important correlates of cessation.

Summary

In HIV-1 subtype C infected populations in south India, we searched for novel mutations associated with failing antiretroviral therapy that included nucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitors. HIV-1 RT sequences were generated from treated and untreated groups and each nucleotide position was analysed with appropriate corrections for multiple testing. We found that nonsynonymous mutations at positions 208 and 228 were strongly associated with the presence of thymidine analogue mutations in the treated group, and were not present at all in the naïve group. The role of these substitutions on treatment outcomes and the evolution of drug resistance in HIV-1 subtype-C infected populations warrant further investigation.

Background. Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) has become the global “epidemic” with an estimated 123 million people currently infected worldwide. As the same time diabetes is also rapidly emerging as a global health care problem that threatens to reach pandemic levels by 2030. Objective. To investigate the magnitude of HCV infection in type II diabetes as compared to controls. Methodology. A case control study design was conducted at Jimma University Specialized Hospital from May to June 2010. A total of 604 study subjects were included in this study. Sociodemographic and risk factor data were collected by questionnaire. From serum sample, HCVAb screening was done by rapid antibody screening test. Liver functioning tests and total cholesterol tests were done by Dr. Lange LP 800 spectrophotometer. Results. The prevalence of HCV in type II diabetes and nondiabetic controls was 9.9% and 3.3%, respectively. In multivariate analysis, HCV seropositives have high risk of developing diabetes as compared with seronegatives (AOR = 2.997, 95% CI: (1.08, 8.315)). Conclusion. In this study, we found a positive association between past HCV infection and type II diabetes. As we did not perform HCV RNA test, we could not assess the association with HCV viremia.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to examine whether social network factors predict HIV and Hepatitis C (HCV) serostatus after controlling for individual-level factors at baseline among a cohort of male injection drug users in Chennai, India.

Methods

The sample, which was recruited through street outreach, consists of 1,078 males who reported having injected drugs in the last 6 months

Results

The participants reported 3,936 social support and risk network members. HIV and HCV positive serostatus were negatively associated with network member providing emotional support, and positively associated with network member providing material support. In addition, HCV positivity was associated with network member being an active drug user known for more than 10 years and network member being male kin networks, even after adjusting for individual demographic factors and risk behaviors.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that social network factors are significantly linked to HIV and HCV status among IDUs in Southern India and highlight the mixed effects of social capital on health. Future HIV/HCV prevention efforts should incorporate IDU peers to alter drug network injection risk norms. For drug users who have minimal network support, support groups and other informal and formal support mechanisms may help coping with HIV/HCV and cessation of drug use.

Background

World Health organization (WHO) declared tuberculosis as a global emergency because it poses a serious public health threat in different countries especially, in Africa. According to WHO report of 2007, Directly Observed Treatment Short course (DOTS) coverage in Ethiopia reached 95 percent of the population; despite this fact the trend of tuberculosis in most of the districts of Ethiopia is not known. Hence, this study has revealed the trend and determined the overall prevalence of smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis in five years (2005/6–2009/10) in Agaro teaching health center, south west Ethiopia.

Methods

A retrospective study based on record review was conducted at Agaro Teaching Health center on sputum examination record of patient's from 2005/6–2009/10(five years). Socio demographic data and sputum laboratory results were collected using pre-designed questionnaire and the data was entered into a computer using SPSS version 16 for windows. Finally, cross tab analysis and Chi-square was calculated at P-value less than 0.05 to check possible association between socio-demographic variables and smear positivity.

Results

The overall five years prevalence of smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis was found out to be 10.9%. On the other hand, the percentage of smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis cases showed gradual decrease from 19.5% in 2005/6 to 5.8% cases in 2009/10.

Conclusion

Tuberculosis is still the major problem of Agaro health center catchment area even though there is a decrease in trend from year to year. Hence, the respective health bureau and other stake holders should still need to strengthen their effort to control it.

Background. Tuberculosis lymphadenitis is one of the most common forms of all extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Objective. To evaluate the magnitude of M. tuberculosis from lymph node biopsy paraffin-embedded sections among suspected patients visiting the Jimma University Specialized Hospital. Method. A cross-sectional study design of histological examination among lymph node biopsy paraffin-embedded sections by Ziehl-Neelsen and hematoxylin/eosin staining technique was conducted from December, 2009, to October, 2010, at the Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Pathology. Result. Histopathological examination of the specimens by hematoxylin and eosin staining technique revealed the presence of granulomas. But for the caseation and necrosis they were present in 85% cases of nodal tissue biopsies. From those, 56.7% were from females. The presence of acid-fast bacilli was microscopically confirmed by ZN staining in 37 (61.7%) of the nodal tissue biopsies. Conclusion and Recommendation. Tuberculosis lymphadenitis is significantly more common in females. Hence, attention should be given for control and prevention of extrapulmonary tuberculosis.

The authors characterized human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) incidence and prospective changes in self-reported risk behavior over 2 years among 1,158 injection drug users (IDUs) recruited in Chennai, India, in 2005–2006. At baseline, HIV prevalence was 25.3%, and HCV prevalence was 54.5%. Seropositive persons with prevalent HIV infection were used to estimate baseline HIV incidence by means of the Calypte HIV-1 BED Incidence EIA (Calypte Biomedical Corporation, Portland, Oregon). Longitudinal HIV and HCV incidence were measured among 865 HIV-negative IDUs and 519 HCV antibody-negative IDUs followed semiannually for 2 years. Participants received pre- and posttest risk reduction counseling at each visit. Estimated HIV incidence at baseline was 2.95 per 100 person-years (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.21, 4.69) by BED assay; observed HIV incidence over 1,262 person-years was 0.48 per 100 person-years (95% CI: 0.17, 1.03). HCV incidence over 645 person-years was 1.71 per 100 person-years (95% CI: 0.85, 3.03). Self-reported risk behaviors declined significantly over time, from 100% of participants reporting drug injection at baseline to 11% at 24 months. In this cohort with high HIV and HCV prevalence at enrollment, the authors observed low incidence and declining self-reported risk behavior over time. While no formal intervention was administered, these findings highlight the potential impact of voluntary counseling and testing in a high-risk cohort.

Use of a combination of CD4 counts and HIV viral load testing in the management of antiretroviral therapy (ART) provides higher prognostic estimation of the risk of disease progression than does the use of either test alone. The standard methods to monitor HIV infection are flow cytometry based for CD4+ T cell count and molecular assays to quantify plasma viral load of HIV. Commercial assays have been routinely used in developed countries to monitor ART. However, these assays require expensive equipment and reagents, well trained operators, and established laboratory infrastructure. These requirements restrict their use in resource-limited settings where people are most afflicted with the HIV-1 epidemic. With the advent of low-cost and/or low-tech alternatives, the possibility of implementing CD4 count and viral load testing in the management of ART in resource-limited settings is increasing. However, an appropriate validation should have been done before putting them to use for patient testing.

Over the past 30 years, several interventions have been identified to prevent HIV transmission from HIV-infected persons to uninfected persons in discordant relationships. Yet, transmissions continue to occur. Interventions such as voluntary counselling and testing, condom promotion and risk reduction counselling are very effective in preventing transmission among serodiscordant couples but are underutilized in India despite their widespread availability. New interventions such as pre-risk exposure prophylaxis and universal antiretroviral therapy (irrespective of CD4 count) have been newly identified but face several challenges that impede their widespread implementation in India. Discordant couples in India also face certain unique socio-cultural issues such as marital and fertility pressure. We briefly review the various interventions (existing and novel) available for persons in discordant relationships in India and socio-cultural issues faced by these individuals and make recommendations to maximize their implementation.

Background

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived drug use stigma, acquiescence response bias, and HIV injection risk behaviors among current injection drug users in Chennai, India.

Methods

The sample consists of 851 males in Chennai, India who reported having injected drugs in the last month and were recruited through street outreach.

Results

Results indicate a strong and consistent positive association between drug use stigma and HIV injection drug use risk behaviors. This association held across the injection behaviors of frequency of sharing needles, cookers, cotton filters, rinse water, prefilled syringes and common drug solutions, even after controlling for acquiescence response bias, frequency of injection, and HIV/HCV serostatus.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that future HIV prevention and harm reduction programs for injection drug users and service providers should address drug use stigma.

Background

It is estimated that there are up to 1.1 million injection drug users (IDUs) in India; the majority are likely married. We characterize HIV, hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) prevalence and the risk environment of a sample of spouses of IDUs.

Methods

A cohort of 1158 IDUs (99% male) was recruited in Chennai, India from 2005-06. A convenience sample of 400 spouses of the male IDUs in this cohort was recruited in 2009. A risk assessment questionnaire was administered and a blood sample collected. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with prevalent HIV.

Results

Median age was 31 years; thirteen percent were widowed and 7% were not currently living with their spouse. Only 4 (1%) reported ever injecting drugs; Twenty-two percent and 25% reported ever using non-injection drugs and alcohol, respectively. The majority had one lifetime sexual partner and 37 (9%) reporting exchanging sex. Only 7% always used condoms with their regular partner. HIV, HBV and HCV prevalence were 2.5%, 3.8% and 0.5%, respectively; among spouses of HIV+ IDUs (n = 78), HIV prevalence was 10.3%. The strongest predictor of HIV was spousal HIV status (OR: 17.9; p < 0.001). Fifty-six percent of women had ever experienced intimate partner violence; Eight-six percent reported sexual violence.

Conclusions

Our finding of a 10-fold higher HIV prevalence among spouses of IDUs compared with general population women indicates their vulnerability; prevalence is likely to increase given the context of low condom use and frequent sexual violence. Prevention efforts directed at IDUs should also include programs for spouses.

Background & Objectives:

We characterized HCV antibody prevalence, viral persistence, genotype and liver disease prevalence among IDUs in Chennai, India as the study of the association of HIV with each of these states is important and there are no data available.

Methods:

Between 2005-2006, 1158 IDUs were recruited and followed semi-annually. All were tested for HCV antibodies at baseline; a random sample of 400 antibody positives (200 HIV-positive and 200 HIV-negative) were tested for HCV RNA; 13 of these were sequenced. Assessment of asparate amino transferase (AST)-to-platelet ratio index (APRI) was done on 557 IDUs. Prevalence ratios of each outcome were examined.

Results:

Median age was 35 yr; 99 per cent were male. HCV antibody prevalence was 55 per cent and was associated with older age, being unmarried, longer injection history, tattoo and injecting at a dealer’s place. Of the 400 HCV antibody positive IDUs, 281 (70.3%) had persistent infection which was less common among hepatitis B-infected persons but not associated with HIV. Of the 13 samples sequenced, 11 (85%) were HCV genotype 3a. Fibrosis prevalence according to APRI was: HIV/HCV-uninfected, 4 per cent; HIV mono-infected, 3 per cent; HCV mono-infected, 11 per cent; HIV/HCV co-infected, 12 per cent (P<0.001). In addition to being associated with HCV and HIV/HCV, fibrosis prevalence was higher among those drinking alcohol frequently; daily marijuana use was protective.

Interpretation & Conclusions:

Our findings show that IDUs in Chennai have high HCV prevalence and associated disease burden. The burden will increase as access to antiretroviral therapy improves particularly given the high prevalence of HIV, HCV and alcohol use.

Background

Increased incidence of cardiovascular mortality and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has been reported in hypopituitarism; but previous studies did not correct for obesity in these patients. Therefore it remained unclear if endocrine deficiency in hypopituitarism is associated with metabolic consequences independent of obesity. This study was designed to determine the burden of cardiovascular disease and NAFLD in hypopituitarism.

Methods

We performed a retrospective case-control analysis of hypopituitary patients at Veterans Affair Medical center, Memphis; from January 1997- June 2007. After matching for age, gender, obesity and race, relevant data were abstracted from the subjects' records to determine the presence of hypopituitarism, cardiovascular risk factors and fatty liver disease. Cases and controls were characterized by descriptive statistics, and compared using Chi-square and Student's t- tests.

Results

Hypopituitary patients exhibited higher prevalence of hypertension- 88% vs 78% (P<0.03), hypertriglyceridemia-80% vs 70% (P=0.05), low HDL cholesterol-84% vs 70% (P<0.001), and metabolic syndrome-90% vs 71% (P<0.001). Patients also had higher mean plasma glucose levels-228 ± 152 vs 181 ± 83 mg/dL (P<0.01). Despite higher preponderance of cardiovascular risk factors in hypopituitary patients, prevalence of cardiovascular morbidity was similar in both groups (P>0.3). Hypopituitary patients had higher elevations in serum aminotransferase levels and hyperbilirubinemia-24% vs 11% (P<0.01), as well as higher INR and hypoalbuminemia 40% vs 23% (P<0.01).

Conclusions

There is increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome and liver dysfunction consistent with NAFLD in hypopituitarism. Although hypopituitary patients had higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors than controls, they were not disproportionately affected by cardiovascular disease.

We characterize the demographics, injection practices and risk behaviours of 1158 injection drug users (IDUs) in Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu in southern India who were recruited in 2005–2006 by community outreach. The median age was 35 years; the majority of IDUs were male, of Tamil ethnicity and married, earning less than USD 75 per month. Most (76%) had injected in the prior month. The median age at first injection was 25 years; the most common drug injected was heroin (80%) followed by buprenorphine. High risk behaviours were common and included needle sharing, unsafe disposal and inappropriate cleaning of needles as well as limited condom use. IDUs in India need to be educated on harm reduction and safe-injection practices; Pharmacies could serve as potential venues for HIV prevention interventions among IDUs in India as most IDUs obtain their needles from pharmacies without prescription.

Commercial HIV-1 genotypic resistance assays are very expensive, particularly for use in resource-constrained settings like India. Hence a cost effective in-house assay for drug resistance was validated against the standard ViroSeq™ HIV-1 Genotyping System 2.0 (Celera Diagnostics, CA, USA). A total of 50 samples were used for this evaluation (21 proficiency panels and 29 clinical isolates). Known resistance positions within HIV-1 protease (PR) region (1–99 codons) and HIV-1 reverse-transcriptase (RT) region (1–240 codons) were included. The results were analysed for each codon as follows: (i) concordant; (ii) partially concordant; (iii) indeterminate and (iv) discordant. A total of 2750 codons (55 codons per patient sample × 50 samples) associated with drug resistance (1050 PR and 1700 RT) were analysed. For PR, 99% of the codon results were concordant and 1% were partially concordant. For RT, 99% of the codon results were concordant, 0.9% were partially concordant and 0.1% were discordant. No indeterminate results were observed and the results were reproducible. Overall, the in-house assay provided comparable results to those of US FDA approved ViroSeq™, which costs about a half of the commercial assay ($ 100 vs. $ 230), making it suitable for resource-limited settings.

This qualitative study examines the role of alcohol in sexual risk among male migrant workers and female sex workers in two South Indian states. Most men reported using alcohol for increased energy and courage prior to their sexual experiences and to reduce feelings of loneliness and isolation. Sex workers, on the other hand, often stated that they avoided alcohol prior to sex in order to stay alert and reduce the risk of violence. Both groups reported that drinking often increased male aggression and reduced condom use. Research is needed to examine the prevalence of these patterns as well as factors associated with sexual risk and violence, in order to develop targeted interventions for these groups. Future risk reduction programs may benefit from addressing safer ways of meeting the needs expressed by the participants. This may include strategies to defuse volatile situations, safe ways of improving the sexual experience, and interventions aimed at alleviating loneliness and isolation for migrants.

This qualitative study examines the role of alcohol in sexual risk among male migrant workers and female sex workers in two South Indian states. Most men reported using alcohol for increased energy and courage prior to their sexual experiences and to reduce feelings of loneliness and isolation. Sex workers, on the other hand, often stated that they avoided alcohol prior to sex in order to stay alert and reduce the risk of violence. Both groups reported that drinking often increased male aggression and reduced condom use. Research is needed to examine the prevalence of these patterns as well as factors associated with sexual risk and violence, in order to develop targeted interventions for these groups. Future risk reduction programs may benefit from addressing safer ways of meeting the needs expressed by the participants. This may include strategies to defuse volatile situations, safe ways of improving the sexual experience, and interventions aimed at alleviating loneliness and isolation for migrants.

Background

Injection drug users (IDUs) have estimated mortality rates over 10 times higher than the general population; much of this excess mortality is HIV associated. Few mortality estimates among IDUs from developing countries, including India, exist.

Methods

IDUs (1158) were recruited in Chennai from April 2005 to May 2006; 293 were HIV positive. Information on deaths and causes was obtained through outreach workers and family/network members. Mortality rates and standardized mortality ratios were calculated; multivariate Poisson regression was used to identify predictors of mortality.

Results

We observed 85 deaths over 1998 person-years (p-y) of follow-up [incidence rate (IR) 4.25 per 100 p-y; 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.41, 5.23]. The overall standardized mortality ratio was 11.1; for HIV-positive IDUs, the standardized mortality ratio was 23.9. Mortality risk among HIV-positive IDUs (IR 8.88 per 100 p-y) was nearly three times that of negative IDUs (IR 3.03 per 100 p-y) and increased with declining immune status (CD4 cells > 350: 5.44 per 100 p-y vs. CD4 cells ≤ 200: 34.5 per 100 p-y). This association persisted after adjustment for potential confounders. The leading causes of mortality in both HIV negative and positive IDUs were overdose (n = 22), AIDS (n = 14), tuberculosis (n = 8) and accident/trauma (n = 9).

Conclusion

Substantial mortality was observed in this cohort with the highest rates among HIV-positive IDUs with CD4 cells less than 350. Although in these 2 years, non-AIDS deaths outnumbered AIDS-related deaths, the relative contribution of AIDS-associated mortality is likely to increase with advancing HIV disease progression. These data reinforce the need for interventions to reduce the harms associated with drug use and increase HAART access among IDUs in Chennai.

Background

Fluid refractory septic shock can develop into a hypodynamic cardiovascular state in both children and adults. Despite management of these patients with empiric inotropic therapy (with or without a vasodilator), mortality remains high.

Objectives

Here, the effect of cardiovascular support using intraaortic balloon counterpulsation (IABC) was investigated in a hypodynamic, mechanically ventilated canine sepsis model in which cardiovascular and pulmonary support were titrated based on treatment protocols.

Methods

Each week, three animals (n = 33, 10-12 kg) were administered intrabronchial S. aureus challenge and then randomized to receive IABC for 68 h or no IABC (control). Bacteria doses were increased over the study (4 to 8 × 109 cfu/kg) to assess the effects of IABC during sepsis with increasing risk of death.

Main Results

Compared to lower bacteria doses (4 to 7 × 109 cfu/kg), control animals challenged with the highest dose (8 × 109 cfu/kg) had a greater risk of death (mortality rate 86% vs. 17%), with worse lung injury (A-aO2), and renal dysfunction (creatinine). These sicker animals required higher norepinephrine infusion rates to maintain blood pressure and higher FiO2 and PEEP levels to maintain oxygenation (p ≤ 0.04 for all). In animals receiving the highest bacterial dose, IABC improved survival time (23.4 ± 10 h longer; p = 0.003) and lowered norepinephrine requirements (0.43 ± 0.17 mcg/kg/min; p = 0.002) and systemic vascular resistance index (1.44 ± 0.57 dynes*s-1cm-5kg-1; p < 0.0001) compared to controls. Despite these beneficial effects, IABC was associated with an increase in BUN (p = 0.002) and creatinine (p = 0.12). In animals receiving lower doses of bacteria, IABC had no significant effects on survival or renal function.

Conclusions

In a canine model of severe septic shock with a low cardiac index, IABC prolongs survival time and lowers vasopressor requirements.

Objective

To estimate the prevalence of HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) co-infection as well as current risk behaviors among HIV positive and negative injection drug users (IDUs) in Chennai, India.

Methods

Cross-sectional analysis of a convenience sample of 912 IDUs recruited between March 2004 and April 2005. Specimens were tested for HIV, HBV and HCV. Adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) were estimated using Poisson regression with robust variance estimates.

Results

The prevalence of HIV, HBsAg and anti-HCV were 29.8%, 11.1% and 62.1%, respectively. Among HIV-infected IDUs, prevalence of co-infection with anti-HCV and HBsAg/anti-HCV were 86% and 9.2%, respectively. In multivariate analysis, injecting at a dealer’s place (PR: 1.57) and duration of injection drug use ≥ 11 years (PR: 3.02) were positively associated with prevalent HIV infection. Contrastingly, alcohol consumption ≥ 1/week (PR: 0.55) was negatively associated with HIV. HIV positive IDUs were as or more likely compared to HIV negative IDUs to report recent high-risk injection-related behaviors.

Conclusion

There is a high burden of HIV, HCV and HBV among IDUs that needs to be addressed by improving access to therapies for these infections; further, preventive measures are urgently needed to prevent further spread of HIV, HBV and HCV in this vulnerable population.

Contributing factors to the epidemic are discussed and suggestions made for its management.

Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is important for patient management and prevention of new infections. The number of test kits available for the detection of HIV antibodies is unprecedented. In order to identify appropriate test kits, we evaluated a variety of commercial kits manufactured abroad as well as in India. The plasma and serum specimens (n = 264) were collected from individuals attending the Voluntary Counseling and Testing Centre at the YRG Centre for AIDS and Education. The specimens were used to evaluate six commercially available HIV test kits: Enzaids HIV 1+2, HIV-CheX, Murex HIV-1.2.0, Genscreen HIV 1/2 version 2, Vironostika HIV Uni-Form II Ag/Ab, and CombAids RS Advantage. High sensitivities and specificities (≥99%) were observed for the Enzaids, Murex, Vironostika, and CombAids assays. HIV-CheX showed the highest number of false-positive and false-negative results. The Genscreen test also gave many false positives. The study indicated that the Enzaids, Murex, and Vironostika enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits and the CombAids RS Advantage rapid assay could be used to achieve acceptable results for the detection of HIV antibodies. A combination of two tests is recommended to optimize the efficiency of HIV antibody testing algorithms, especially when evaluation with an HIV Western blot confirmatory test is not possible.

To obtain better understanding of the nature and cost of health care related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, medical payment records were analyzed for 204 men, women, and children older than 60 months who had indications of HIV infection. The records were those of Michigan Medicaid, the General Assistance Medical Program, and the Resident County Hospitalization Program, with service dates on or after January 1, 1984, and which were processed by November 30, 1987. Patient payment records were coded according to whether the patient's condition was considered to be pre-HIV, HIV unrelated, possibly HIV related, or HIV related. Average monthly payments were found to be $150 for pre-HIV patient payment records, $114 for those HIV unrelated, $57 for those possibly related, and $1,213 for those related to HIV infection. HIV-related monthly payments rose from about $1,500 per month in the period 3 months prior to the patient's death to more than $8,000 in the last month of life. Men were found to have twice as many claims as women, and men's claims cost about three times as much. A higher percentage of women than men (91 percent versus 37 percent) received pre-HIV paid services, indicating a higher percentage of women were at least initially receiving Medicaid for reasons other than an HIV-related disability. Diagnostic categories that accounted for the bulk of the HIV-related health care utilization included infectious and parasitic diseases, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, diseases of the respiratory system, and non-HIV-specific immunity disorders. Inpatient hospitalization accounted for more than 75 percent of the payments, followed by physician costs (11 percent), pharmacy costs (5 percent), and outpatient costs (3 percent). A total of 45, or about 22 percent of the recipients, received zidovudine (AZT) prescriptions at an average monthly cost of $404.