Related Articles

Rationale

Recent studies have implicated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in regulating hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV), but controversy exists regarding whether hypoxia increases or decreases ROS generation.

Objective

This study tested the hypothesis that hypoxia induces redox changes that differ among sub-cellular compartments in pulmonary (PASMC) and systemic (SASMC) smooth muscle cells.

Methods and Results

We employed a novel, redox-sensitive, ratiometric fluorescent protein sensor (RoGFP) to assess the effects of hypoxia on redox signaling in cultured PASMC and SASMC. Using genetic targeting sequences, RoGFP was expressed in the cytosol (Cyto-RoGFP), the mitochondrial matrix (Mito-RoGFP), or the mitochondrial inter-membrane space (IMS-RoGFP), allowing assessment of oxidant signaling in distinct intracellular compartments. Superfusion of PASMC or SASMC with hypoxic media increased oxidation of both Cyto-RoGFP and IMS-RoGFP. However, hypoxia decreased oxidation of Mito-RoGFP in both cell types. The hypoxia-induced oxidation of Cyto-RoGFP was attenuated through the over-expression of cytosolic catalase in PASMC.

Conclusions

These results indicate that hypoxia causes a decrease in non-specific ROS generation in the matrix compartment, while it increases regulated ROS production in the IMS, which diffuses to the cytosol of both PASMC and SASMC.

Many essential cellular processes are affected by transmembrane H+ gradients and intracellular pH (pHi). The research of such metabolic events calls for a non-invasive method to monitor pHi within individual subcellular compartments. We present a novel confocal microscopy approach for the determination of organellar pHi in living cells expressing pH-dependent ratiometric fluorescent proteins. Unlike conventional intensity-based fluorometry, our method relies on emission wavelength scans at single-organelle resolution to produce wavelength-based pH estimates both accurate and robust to low-signal artifacts. Analyses of Ato1p-pHluorin and Ato1p-mCherry yeast cells revealed previously unreported wavelength shifts in pHluorin emission which, together with ratiometric mCherry, allowed for high-precision quantification of actual physiological pH values and evidenced dynamic pHi changes throughout the different stages of yeast colony development. Additionally, comparative pH quantification of Ato1p-pHluorin and Met17p-pHluorin cells implied the existence of a significant pHi gradient between peripheral and internal cytoplasm of cells from colonies occurring in the ammonia-producing alkali developmental phase. Results represent a step forward in the study of pHi regulation and subcellular metabolic functions beyond the scope of this study.

Redox environments are of particular interest, especially in the mitochondria with its highly reducing environment and its role as the central processing unit of apoptosis. Monitoring of mitochondrial redox environments is crucial to the study of apoptotic disorders. Reporting of the thiol/disulfide status in live cells was made possible with the development of redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein (roGFP). We aim to develop a red version redox-sensitive fluorescent protein (roRFP). Expanding the array of redox-sensitive proteins with a red version will enable simultaneous visualization of multiple reducing intracellular compartments. mKeima is a monomeric red fluorescent protein that absorbs light maximally at 440nm and emits red light at 620nm. This large Stokes shift is dramatically decreased in acidic environments. By following protocol similar to that used in the development of roGFP, surface residues at key positions were changed to cysteines and random mutagenesis was performed on varying excitation species of mKeima. Mutants were screened and a ratiometric variant of mKeima was identified (roRFP2) which exhibits changes in its spectral properties as a result of changes in the thiol/disulfide equilibrium. Preliminary fluorescence spectroscopy measurements of roRFP2 indicate a highly reducing redox potential of −330mV indicating it may be a useful probe in reducing subcellular compartments such as mitochondria or in the cytoplasm. By employing vector recombination of shuttle vector PYX142, we successfully targeted roRFP2 in vivo to the mitochondria and cytoplasm of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Expression of roRFP2 was visualized using fluorescence microscopy. Thus, through mutagenesis and residue substitution we successfully created a red version redox sensitive biosensor that tested effectively as a ratiometric indicator and expressed in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of S. cerevisiae. Moreover, the redox potential of roRFP2 is significantly more negative than the widely used roGFPs.

Green florescent protein (GFP) variants that are sensitive to changes in pH are invaluable reagents for the analysis of protein dynamics associated with both endo- and exocytotic vesicular trafficking. Ratiometric pHluorin is a GFP variant that displays a bimodal excitation spectrum with peaks at 395 and 475 nm and an emission maximum at 509 nm. Upon acidification, pHluorin excitation at 395 nm decreases with a corresponding increase in the excitation at 475 nm. GFP2, a GFP variant that contains mammalianized codons and the folding enhancing mutation F64L, displays ~8-fold higher florescence compared to pHluorin upon excitation at 395 nm. Using GFP2 as a template, an enhanced ratiometric pHluorin (pHluorin2) construct was developed to contain fully mammalianized codons, the F64L mutation and ten of the thirteen pHluorin-specific mutations. As a result, pHluorin2 displays markedly higher florescence when compared to pHluorin while maintaining the ratiometric pH-sensitivity. Unlike native pHluorin, pHluorin2 expressed in the ligand-binding domain of the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor is readily detectable by confocal microscopy and displays a marked increase in florescence upon ligand-induced endocytosis to intracellular vesicles. Thus, pHluorin2’s enhanced florescence while sustaining ratiometric pH-sensitivity represents a significant improvement for this methodological approach.

A highly specific, high throughput-amenable bacterial biosensor for chemically induced cellular oxidation was developed using constitutively expressed redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein roGFP2 in E. coli (E. coli-roGFP2). Disulfide formation between two key cysteine residues of roGFP2 was assessed using a double-wavelength ratiometric approach. This study demonstrates that only a few minutes were required to detect oxidation using E. coli-roGFP2, in contrast to conventional bacterial oxidative stress sensors. Cellular oxidation induced by hydrogen peroxide, menadione, sodium selenite, zinc pyrithione, triphenyltin and naphthalene became detectable after 10 seconds and reached the maxima between 80 to 210 seconds, contrary to Cd2+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Zn2+ and sodium arsenite, which induced the oxidation maximum immediately. The lowest observable effect concentrations (in ppm) were determined as 1.0 × 10−7 (arsenite), 1.0 × 10−4 (naphthalene), 1.0 × 10−4 (Cu2+), 3.8 × 10−4 (H2O2), 1.0 × 10−3 (Cd2+), 1.0 × 10−3 (Zn2+), 1.0 × 10−2 (menadione), 1.0 (triphenyltin), 1.56 (zinc pyrithione), 3.1 (selenite) and 6.3 (Pb2+), respectively. Heavy metal-induced oxidation showed unclear response patterns, whereas concentration-dependent sigmoid curves were observed for other compounds. In vivo GSH content and in vitro roGFP2 oxidation assays together with E. coli-roGFP2 results suggest that roGFP2 is sensitive to redox potential change and thiol modification induced by environmental stressors. Based on redox-sensitive technology, E. coli-roGFP2 provides a fast comprehensive detection system for toxicants that induce cellular oxidation.

Accurate measurement of synaptic vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis is crucial to understanding the molecular basis of synaptic transmission. The fusion of a pH-sensitive GFP (pHluorin) to various synaptic vesicle proteins has allowed the study of synaptic vesicle recycling in real-time. Two such probes, synaptopHluorin and sypHy have been imaged at synapses of hippocampal neurons in culture. The combination of these reporters with techniques for molecular interference, such as RNAi allows for the study of molecules involved in synaptic vesicle recycling. Here we describe methods for the culture and transfection of hippocampal neurons, imaging of pHluorin-based probes at synapses and analysis of pHluorin signals down to the resolution of individual synaptic vesicles.

Peroxisomes are capable of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, but their contribution to cellular redox balance is not well understood. This study demonstrates that peroxisomes and mitochondria functionally interact via ROS signaling, suggesting a potential broader role for the peroxisome in cellular aging and the initiation and progression of age-related diseases.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are at once unsought by-products of metabolism and critical regulators of multiple intracellular signaling cascades. In nonphotosynthetic eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are well-investigated major sites of ROS generation and related signal initiation. Peroxisomes are also capable of ROS generation, but their contribution to cellular oxidation–reduction (redox) balance and signaling events are far less well understood. In this study, we use a redox-sensitive variant of enhanced green fluorescent protein (roGFP2-PTS1) to monitor the state of the peroxisomal matrix in mammalian cells. We show that intraperoxisomal redox status is strongly influenced by environmental growth conditions. Furthermore, disturbances in peroxisomal redox balance, although not necessarily correlated with the age of the organelle, may trigger its degradation. We also demonstrate that the mitochondrial redox balance is perturbed in catalase-deficient cells and upon generation of excess ROS inside peroxisomes. Peroxisomes are found to resist oxidative stress generated elsewhere in the cell but are affected when the burden originates within the organelle. These results suggest a potential broader role for the peroxisome in cellular aging and the initiation of age-related degenerative disease.

Pyocyanin (N-methyl-1-hydroxyphenazine), a redox-active virulence factor produced by the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is known to compromise mucociliary clearance. Exposure of human bronchial epithelial cells to pyocyanin increased the rate of cellular release of H2O2 3-fold above the endogenous H2O2 production. Real-time measurements of the redox-potential of the cytosolic compartment using the redox sensor roGFP1 showed that pyocyanin (100 μM) oxidized the cytosol from a resting value of -318 ± 5 mV by 48.0 ± 4.6 mV within 2 hours; a comparable oxidation was induced by 100 μM H2O2. While resting Cl- secretion was slightly activated by pyocyanin (to 10% of maximal currents), forskolin-stimulated Cl- secretion was inhibited by 86%. The decline was linearly related to the cytosolic redox potential (1.8% inhibition/mV oxidation). CF bronchial epithelial cells homozygous for ΔF508 CFTR failed to secrete Cl- in response to pyocyanin or H2O2 indicating that these oxidants specifically target CFTR and not other Cl- conductances. Treatment with pyocyanin also decreased total cellular glutathione levels to 62% and cellular ATP levels to 46% after 24 hours. We conclude that pyocyanin is a key factor that redox cycles in the cytosol, generates H2O2, depletes glutathione and ATP, and impairs CFTR function in Pseudomonas infected lungs.

Low levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can function as redox-active signaling messengers, whereas high levels of ROS induce cellular damage. Menadione generates ROS through redox cycling, and high concentrations trigger cell death. Previous work suggests that menadione triggers cytochrome c release from mitochondria, while other studies implicate activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition poreas the mediator of cell death. We investigated menadione-induced cell death in genetically modified cells lacking specific death-associated proteins. In cardiomyocytes, oxidant stress was assessed using the redox sensor RoGFP, expressed in the cytosol or the mitochondrial matrix. Menadione elicited rapid oxidation in both compartments, while it decreased mitochondrial potential and triggered cytochrome c redistribution to the cytosol. Cell death was attenuated by N-acetyl cysteine and exogenous glutathione (GSH), or by over-expression of cytosolic or mitochondria-targeted catalase. By contrast, no protection was observed in cells over-expressing Cu, Zn-SOD or MnSOD. Over-expression of antiapoptotic Bcl-XLprotected against staurosporine-induced cell death, but it failed to confer protection against menadione. Genetic deletion of Bax and Bak, cytochrome c, cyclophilin D or caspase-9 conferred no protection against menadione-induced cell death. However, cells lacking PARP-1 showed a significant decrease in menadione-induced cell death. Thus, menadione induces cell death through the generation of oxidant stress in multiple subcellular compartments, yet cytochromec, Bax/Bak, caspase-9 and cyclophilin D are dispensable for cell death in this model. These studies suggest that multiple redundant cell death pathways are activated by menadione, but that PARP plays an essential role in mediating each of them.

Background

The pH is an important parameter controlling many metabolic and signalling pathways in living cells. Recombinant fluorescent pH indicators (pHluorins) have come into vogue for monitoring cellular pH. They are derived from the most popular Aequorea victoria GFP (Av-GFP). Here, we present a novel fluorescent pH reporter protein from the orange seapen Ptilosarcus gurneyi (Pt-GFP) and compare its properties with pHluorins for expression and use in plants.

Results

pHluorins have a higher pH-sensitivity. However, Pt-GFP has a broader pH-responsiveness, an excellent dynamic ratio range and a better acid stability. We demonstrate how Pt-GFP expressing Arabidopsis thaliana report cytosolic pH-clamp and changes of cytosolic pH in the response to anoxia and salt-stress.

Conclusion

Pt-GFP appears to be the better choice when used for in vivo-recording of cellular pH in plants.

Redox regulation based on dithiol-disulphide interchange is an essential component of the control of chloroplast metabolism. In contrast to heterotrophic organisms, and non-photosynthetic plant tissues, chloroplast redox regulation relies on ferredoxin (Fd) reduced by the photosynthetic electron transport chain, thus being highly dependent on light. The finding of the NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase C (NTRC), a chloroplast-localized NTR with a joint thioredoxin domain, showed that NADPH is also used as source of reducing power for chloroplast redox homeostasis. Recently we have found that NTRC is also in plastids of non-photosynthetic tissues. Because these non-green plastids lack photochemical reactions, their redox homeostasis depends exclusively on NADPH produced from sugars and, thus, NTRC may play an essential role maintaining the redox homeostasis in these plastids. The fact that redox regulation occurs in any type of plastids raises the possibility that the functions of chloroplasts and non-green plastids, such as amyloplasts, are integrated to harmonize the growth of the different organs of the plant. To address this question, we generated Arabidopsis plants the redox homeostasis of which is recovered exclusively in chloroplasts, by leaf-specific expression of NTRC in the ntrc mutant, or exclusively in amyloplasts, by root-specific expression of NTRC. The analysis of these plants suggests that chloroplasts exert a pivotal role on plant growth, as expected because chloroplasts constitute the major source of nutrients and energy, derived from photosynthesis, for growth of heterotrophic tissues. However, NTRC deficiency causes impairment of auxin synthesis and lateral root formation. Interestingly, recovery of redox homeostasis of chloroplasts, but not of amyloplasts, was sufficient to restore wild type levels of lateral roots, showing the important signaling function of chloroplasts for the development of heterotrophic organs.

Background

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its fusion proteins have been used extensively to monitor and analyze a wide range of biological processes. However, proteolytic cleavage often removes GFP from its fusion proteins, not only causing a poor signal-to-noise ratio of the fluorescent images but also leading to wrong interpretations.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, we report that the M153R mutation in a ratiometric pH-sensitive GFP, pHluorin, significantly stabilizes its fusion products while the mutant protein still retaining a marked pH dependence of 410/470 nm excitation ratio of fluorescence intensity. The M153R mutation increases the brightness in vivo but does not affect the 410/470-nm excitation ratios at various pH values.

Conclusions/Significance

Since the pHluorin(M153R) probe can be directly fused to the target proteins, we suggest that it will be a potentially powerful tool for the measurement of local pH in living cells as well as for the analysis of subcellular localization of target proteins.

Background: Toxicological studies have correlated inflammatory effects of diesel exhaust particles (DEP) with its organic constituents, such as the organic electrophile 1,2-naphthoquinone (1,2-NQ).

Objective: To elucidate the mechanisms involved in 1,2-NQ–induced inflammatory responses, we examined the role of oxidant stress in 1,2-NQ–induced expression of inflammatory and adaptive genes in a human airway epithelial cell line.

Methods: We measured cytosolic redox status and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in living cells using the genetically encoded green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based fluorescent indicators roGFP2 and HyPer, respectively. Expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mRNA was measured in BEAS-2B cells exposed to 1,2-NQ for 1–4 hr. Catalase overexpression and metabolic inhibitors were used to determine the role of redox changes and H2O2 in 1,2-NQ–induced gene expression.

Results: Cells expressing roGFP2 and HyPer showed a rapid loss of redox potential and an increase in H2O2 of mitochondrial origin following exposure to 1,2-NQ. Overexpression of catalase diminished the H2O2-dependent signal but not the 1,2-NQ–induced loss of reducing potential. Catalase overexpression and inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration diminished elevations in IL-8 and COX-2 induced by exposure to 1,2-NQ, but potentiated HO-1 mRNA levels in BEAS cells.

Conclusion: These data show that 1,2-NQ exposure induces mitochondrial production of H2O2 that mediates the expression of inflammatory genes, but not the concurrent loss of reducing redox potential in BEAS cells. 1,2-NQ exposure also causes marked expression of HO-1 that appears to be enhanced by suppression of H2O2. These findings shed light into the oxidant-dependent events that underlie cellular responses to environmental electrophiles.

We report the optimization of a novel redox-sensitive probe with enhanced dynamic range and an exceptionally well-positioned oxidative midpoint redox potential. The present work characterizes factors that contribute to the improved Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) performance of this green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based redox sensor. The α-helical linker, which separates the FRET donor and acceptor, has been extended in the new probe and leads to a decreased FRET efficiency in the linker’s reduced, ‘FRET-off’ state. Unexpectedly, the FRET efficiency is increased in the new linker’s oxidized, ‘FRET-on’ state compared with the parent probe, in spite of the longer linker sequence. The combination of a lowered baseline ‘FRET-off’ and an increased ‘FRET-on’ signal significantly improves the dynamic range of the probe for a more robust discrimination of its reduced and oxidized linker states. Mutagenesis of the cysteine residues within the α-helix linker reveals the importance of the fourth, C-terminal cysteine and the relative insignificance of the second cysteine in forming the disulfide bridge to clamp the linker into the high-FRET, oxidized state. To further optimize the performance of the redox probe, various cyan fluorescent protein (CFP)/yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) FRET pairs, placed at opposite ends of the improved redox linker (RL7), were quantitatively compared and exchanged. We found that the CyPet/YPet and ECFP/YPet FRET pairs when attached to RL7 do not function well as sensitive redox probes due to a strong tendency to form heterodimers, which disrupt the α-helix. However, monomeric versions of CyPet and YPet (mCyPet and mYPet) eliminate dimerization and restore redox sensitivity of the probe. The best performing probe, ECFP-RL7-EYFP, exhibits an approximately six-fold increase in FRET efficiency in vitro when passing from the oxidized to the reduced state. We determined the midpoint redox potential of the probe to be −143 ± 6 mV, which is ideal for measuring glutathione (GSH/GSSG) redox potentials in oxidative compartments of mammalian cells (e.g. the endoplasmic reticulum).

H2O2 acts as a signaling molecule by oxidizing critical thiol groups on redox-regulated target proteins. To explain the efficiency and selectivity of H2O2-based signaling, it has been proposed that oxidation of target proteins may be facilitated by H2O2-scavenging peroxidases. Recently, a peroxidase-based protein oxidation relay has been identified in yeast, namely the oxidation of the transcription factor Yap1 by the peroxidase Orp1. It has remained unclear whether the protein oxidase function of Orp1 is a singular adaptation or whether it may represent a more general principle. Here we show that Orp1 is in fact not restricted to oxidizing Yap1 but can also form a highly efficient redox relay with the oxidant target protein roGFP (redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein) in mammalian cells. Orp1 mediates near quantitative oxidation of roGFP2 by H2O2, and the Orp1-roGFP2 redox relay effectively converts physiological H2O2 signals into measurable fluorescent signals in living cells. Furthermore, the oxidant relay phenomenon is not restricted to Orp1 as the mammalian peroxidase Gpx4 also mediates oxidation of proximal roGFP2 in living cells. Together, these findings support the concept that certain peroxidases harbor an intrinsic and powerful capacity to act as H2O2-dependent protein thiol oxidases when they are recruited into proximity of oxidizable target proteins.

Abstract

Loss of redox homeostasis and formation of excessive free radicals play an important role in the pathogenesis of kidney disease and hypertension. Free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) are necessary in physiologic processes. However, loss of redox homeostasis contributes to proinflammatory and profibrotic pathways in the kidney, which in turn lead to reduced vascular compliance and proteinuria. The kidney is susceptible to the influence of various extracellular and intracellular cues, including the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), hyperglycemia, lipid peroxidation, inflammatory cytokines, and growth factors. Redox control of kidney function is a dynamic process with reversible pro– and anti-free radical processes. The imbalance of redox homeostasis within the kidney is integral in hypertension and the progression of kidney disease. An emerging paradigm exists for renal redox contribution to hypertension. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 11, 2047–2089.

Introduction

Redox Control of Cellular Function: How Is It Achieved?

Free radical contribution to redox control of hypertension

Clinical contribution to redox control of hypertension

Prooxidant enzymes and pathways

NAD(P)H oxidase

Xanthine oxidase (XO)

Lipooxygenases (LOX) and cyclooxygenases (COX)

P450 monooxygenase and mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes (I–IV)

Antioxidant enzymes and pathways

Role of ROS in physiologic processes

Pathologic Role of ROS in Hypertension

Non–RAAS-mediated oxidative stress in hypertension

High intravascular pressure

Shear stress

Lipids

Eicosanoids

High salt

Cigarette smoke

Insulin resistance/hyperinsulinemia

eNOS uncoupling

Dopaminergic system (DS)/sympathetic nervous system

Role of the RAAS in oxidative stress and hypertension

Ang II, ROS, and systemic hypertension

Ang II stimulation of NAD(P)H oxidase and hypertension

p22phox and hypertension

gp91phox (Nox2) and hypertension

p47phox and hypertension

p67phox and hypertension

p40phox and hypertension

Kidney Redox Function and Hypertension

ROS in normal kidney physiology

RAAS in the kidney

RAAS expression in developing and adult kidneys

RAAS-mediated redox mechanisms

Methods for detecting ROS in the laboratory and clinic

Nephron handling of ROS and hypertension: redox control of renal function

Redox control of kidney function

Tubuloglomerular feedback and role of ROS in macula densa

Medullary perfusion and renal hemodynamics

Pressure natriuresis

Tubular sodium transport

Renal sympathetic nerves

Nephron components and their contribution to ROS and hypertension

ROS in the glomeruli/podocytes

ROS and the glomerular basement membrane (GBM)

ROS and the mesangium

ROS and the tubule

NAD(P)H Oxidase Inhibition for the Treatment of Hypertension: Promises and Limitations

NAD(P)H oxidase–specific inhibitors

Apocynin

DPI

Neopterin/phenylarsine oxide

Phycobilins

gp91ds/gp91ds-tat

PR-39

VAS2870, SI7834, and AEBSF

siRNAs

Monoclonal antibodies

Nonspecific NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitors

PKC inhibitors

Antioxidants

Statins, ACE inhibitors/ARBs, and aldosterone antagonists

Future Perspectives/Conclusions

Glutathione is the most abundant low molecular weight thiol in the eukaryotic cytosol. The compartment-specific ratio and absolute concentrations of reduced and oxidized glutathione (GSH and GSSG, respectively) are, however, not easily determined. Here, we present a glutathione-specific green fluorescent protein–based redox probe termed redox sensitive YFP (rxYFP). Using yeast with genetically manipulated GSSG levels, we find that rxYFP equilibrates with the cytosolic glutathione redox buffer. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro data show the equilibration to be catalyzed by glutaredoxins and that conditions of high intracellular GSSG confer to these a new role as dithiol oxidases. For the first time a genetically encoded probe is used to determine the redox potential specifically of cytosolic glutathione. We find it to be −289 mV, indicating that the glutathione redox status is highly reducing and corresponds to a cytosolic GSSG level in the low micromolar range. Even under these conditions a significant fraction of rxYFP is oxidized.

The cardiovascular benefits associated with diets rich in fruit and vegetables are thought to be due to phytochemicals contained in fresh plant material. However, whether processed plant foods provide the same benefits as unprocessed ones is an open question. Melanoidins from heat-processed apricots were isolated and their presence confirmed by colorimetric analysis and browning index. Oxidative injury of endothelial cells (ECs) is the key step for the onset and progression of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), therefore the potential protective effect of apricot melanoidins on hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative mitochondrial damage and cell death was explored in human ECs. The redox state of cytoplasmic and mitochondrial compartments was detected by using the redox-sensitive, fluorescent protein (roGFP), while the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was assessed with the fluorescent dye, JC-1. ECs exposure to hydrogen peroxide, dose-dependently induced mitochondrial and cytoplasmic oxidation. Additionally detected hydrogen peroxide-induced phenomena were MMP dissipation and ECs death. Pretreatment of ECs with apricot melanoidins, significantly counteracted and ultimately abolished hydrogen peroxide-induced intracellular oxidation, mitochondrial depolarization and cell death. In this regard, our current results clearly indicate that melanoidins derived from heat-processed apricots, protect human ECs against oxidative stress.

Ca2+-dependent synaptic vesicle recycling is critical for maintenance of neurotransmission. However, uncoupling the roles of Ca2+ in synaptic vesicle fusion and retrieval has been difficult as studies probing the role of Ca2+ in endocytosis relied on measurements of bulk synaptic vesicle retrieval. Here, to dissect the role of Ca2+ in these processes, we utilized a low signal-to-noise pHluorin-tagged vesicular probe to monitor single synaptic vesicle recycling in rat hippocampal neurons. We show that Ca2+ increases synaptic vesicle fusion probability in the classical sense, but surprisingly decreases the rate of synaptic vesicle retrieval. This negative regulation of synaptic vesicle retrieval is blocked by the Ca2+ chelator, EGTA, as well as FK506, a specific inhibitor of Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin. The slow time course of aggregate synaptic vesicle retrieval detected during repetitive activity could be explained by a progressive decrease in the rate of synaptic vesicle retrieval during the stimulation train. These results indicate Ca2+ entry during single action potentials slows the pace of subsequent synaptic vesicle recycling.

Abstract

Redox reactions are known to regulate many important cellular processes. In this review, we focus on the role of redox regulation in DNA repair both in direct regulation of specific DNA repair proteins as well as indirect transcriptional regulation. A key player in the redox regulation of DNA repair is the base excision repair enzyme apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) in its role as a redox factor. APE1 is reduced by the general redox factor thioredoxin, and in turn reduces several important transcription factors that regulate expression of DNA repair proteins. Finally, we consider the potential for chemotherapeutic development through the modulation of APE1's redox activity and its impact on DNA repair. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 12, 1247–1269.

Introduction

DNA-Repair Pathways

Mammalian direct repair: O6-alkylguanine-DNA methyltransferase or O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase

Base-excision repair

Nucleotide-excision repair

Mismatch repair

Nonhomologous DNA end-joining and homologous recombination

General Redox Systems

The thioredoxin system

The glutaredoxin/glutathione system

Roles of general redox systems

The Redox Activity of APE1

Evolution of the redox function of APE1

Comparison of APE1 with other redox factors

Mechanism of redox regulation by APE1

Transcription Factors Regulated by the Redox Activity of APE1

p53

AP-1

HIF-1α and hypoxia

The Multifunctional APE1 and Redox Control

Modulating APE1 Activities as a Cancer Therapeutic Approach

APE1 redox inhibitors

E3330

Other redox inhibitors

APE1 repair inhibitors

Chemoprevention, Redox Modulation, and DNA Repair

Dietary antioxidants

Ellagic acid

Selenium

Oltipraz

Direct regulation of DNA repair by altered redox status of the cell

Concluding Remarks

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an energy sensor activated by increases in [AMP] or by oxidant stress (reactive oxygen species [ROS]). Hypoxia increases cellular ROS signaling, but the pathways underlying subsequent AMPK activation are not known. We tested the hypothesis that hypoxia activates AMPK by ROS-mediated opening of calcium release-activated calcium (CRAC) channels. Hypoxia (1.5% O2) augments cellular ROS as detected by the redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein (roGFP) but does not increase the [AMP]/[ATP] ratio. Increases in intracellular calcium during hypoxia were detected with Fura2 and the calcium-calmodulin fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) sensor YC2.3. Antioxidant treatment or removal of extracellular calcium abrogates hypoxia-induced calcium signaling and subsequent AMPK phosphorylation during hypoxia. Oxidant stress triggers relocation of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ sensor, to the plasma membrane. Knockdown of STIM1 by short interfering RNA (siRNA) attenuates the calcium responses to hypoxia and subsequent AMPK phosphorylation, while inhibition of L-type calcium channels has no effect. Knockdown of the AMPK upstream kinase LKB1 by siRNA does not prevent AMPK activation during hypoxia, but knockdown of CaMKKβ abolishes the AMPK response. These findings reveal that hypoxia can trigger AMPK activation in the apparent absence of increased [AMP] through ROS-dependent CRAC channel activation, leading to increases in cytosolic calcium that activate the AMPK upstream kinase CaMKKβ.

The pH-sensitive GFP variant pHluorin is typically fused to the extracellular domain of transmembrane proteins to monitor endocytosis. Here we have turned pHluorin inside-out, and demonstrate that cytoplasmic fusions of pHluorin are effective quantitative reporters for endocytosis and MVB sorting. In yeast in particular, fusion of GFP and its variants on the extracellular side of transmembrane proteins can result in perturbed trafficking. In contrast, cytoplasmic fusions are well tolerated, allowing for the quantitative assessment of trafficking of virtually any transmembrane protein. Quenching of degradation-resistant pHluorin in the acidic vacuole permits quantification of extra-vacuolar cargo proteins at steady-state levels and is compatible with kinetic analysis of endocytosis in live cells.

Apoptosis or programmed cell death represents a physiologically conserved mechanism of cell death that is pivotal in normal development and tissue homeostasis in all organisms. As a key modulator of cell functions, the most abundant non-protein thiol, glutathione (GSH), has important roles in cellular defense against oxidant aggression, redox regulation of proteins thiols and maintaining redox homeostasis that is critical for proper function of cellular processes, including apoptosis. Thus, a shift in the cellular GSH-to-GSSG redox balance in favour of the oxidized species, GSSG, constitutes an important signal that could decide the fate of a cell. The current review will focus on three main areas: (1) general description of cellular apoptotic pathways, (2) cellular compartmentation of GSH and the contribution of mitochondrial GSH and redox proteins to apoptotic signalling and (3) role of redox mechanisms in the initiation and execution phases of apoptosis.

Abstract

Significance: Redox-based signaling governs a number of important pathways in tissue homeostasis. Consequently, deregulation of redox-controlled processes has been linked to a number of human diseases. Among the biological processes regulated by redox signaling, apoptosis or programmed cell death is a highly conserved process important for tissue homeostasis. Apoptosis can be triggered by a wide variety of stimuli, including death receptor ligands, environmental agents, and cytotoxic drugs. Apoptosis has also been implicated in the etiology of many human diseases. Recent Advances: Recent discoveries demonstrate that redox-based changes are required for efficient activation of apoptosis. Among these redox changes, alterations in the abundant thiol, glutathione (GSH), and the oxidative post-translational modification, protein S-glutathionylation (PSSG) have come to the forefront as critical regulators of apoptosis. Critical Issues: Although redox-based changes have been documented in apoptosis and disease pathogenesis, the mechanistic details, whereby redox perturbations intersect with pathogenic processes, remain obscure. Future Directions: Further research will be needed to understand the context in which of the members of the death receptor pathways undergo ligand dependent oxidative modifications. Additional investigation into the interplay between oxidative modifications, redox enzymes, and apoptosis pathway members are also critically needed to improve our understanding how redox-based control is achieved. Such analyses will be important in understanding the diverse chronic diseases. In this review we will discuss the emerging paradigms in our current understanding of redox-based regulation of apoptosis with an emphasis on S-glutathionylation of proteins and the enzymes involved in this important post-translational modification. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 16, 496–505.

Summary

The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is a class III G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that responds to changes in extracellular calcium concentration and plays a crucial role in calcium homeostasis. The mechanisms controlling CaSR trafficking and surface expression are largely unknown. Using a CaSR tagged with the pH-sensitive GFP super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP-CaSR), we show that delivery of the GPCR to the cell surface is dependent on receptor-activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs). We demonstrate that SEP-CaSRs are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in COS7 cells that do not contain endogenous RAMPs whereas they are delivered to the plasma membrane in HEK 293 cells that do express RAMP1. Coexpression of RAMP1 or RAMP3, but not RAMP2, in COS7 cells was sufficient to target the CaSR to the cell surface. RAMP1 and RAMP3 colocalised and coimmunoprecipitated with the CaSR suggesting that these proteins associate within the cell. Our results indicate that RAMP expression promotes the forward trafficking of the GPCR from the ER to the Golgi apparatus and results in mature CaSR glycosylation, which is not observed in RAMP-deficient cells. Finally, silencing of RAMP1 in the endogenously expressing HEK293 cells using siRNA resulted in altered CaSR traffic. Taken together, our results show that the association with RAMPs is necessary and sufficient to transfer the immature CaSR retained in the ER towards the Golgi where it becomes fully glycosylated prior to delivery to the plasma membrane and demonstrate a role for RAMPs in the trafficking of a class III GPCR.