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Background

Vitamin D deficiency is of increasing concern in HIV-infected persons, because of its reported association with a number of negative health outcomes that are common in HIV. We undertook this study to determine the prevalence and predictors of vitamin D deficiency among a nationally representative cohort of middle-aged, ethnically diverse HIV-infected and uninfected women enrolled in the Women’s Interagency HIV study (WIHS).

Methods

Vitamin D testing was performed by Quest Diagnostics on frozen sera using the liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC-MS) method. Vitamin D deficiency was defined as 25 (OH) D ≤20 ng/ml. Comparisons of continuous and categorical characteristics among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women were made by Wilcoxon tests and Pearson chi-squared tests, respectively.

Results

1778 women (1268 HIV+) were studied. 63% had vitamin D deficiency (60% HIV +vs. 72% HIV−; p<0.001). Multivariable predictors of Vitamin D Deficiency were being African American (AOR 3.02), Hispanic (AOR 1.40), Body mass index (AOR 1.43), Age (AOR 0.84), HIV+ (AOR 0.76), Glomerular filtration rate <90/ml/min (AOR 0.94) and WIHS site; Los Angeles (AOR 0.66), Chicago (AOR 0.63). In the HIV+ women multivariate predictors were; undetectable HIVRNA (AOR 0.69), CD4 50–200 cells/mm3 (AOR 1.60), CD4 <50 cells/mm3 (AOR 1.94) and recent Protease Inhibitor use (AOR 0.67).

Conclusions

In this study of over 1700 women in the US, most women with or without HIV infection had low vitamin D levels and African American women had the highest rates of Vitamin D deficiency. An understanding of the role that vitamin D deficiency plays in non-AIDS related morbidities is planned for investigation in WIHS.

Summary

We evaluated vitamin D status in HIV+ and HIV− postmenopausal African-American (AA) and Hispanic women. Most women (74–78%) had insufficient 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) levels, regardless of HIV status. 25OHD was lower in AA women and women lacking supplement use, providing support for screening and supplementation. Among HIV+ women, 25OHD was associated with current CD4 but not type of antiretroviral therapy.

Introduction

To evaluate vitamin D status and factors associated with vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in HIV-infected (HIV+) postmenopausal minority women.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 89 HIV+ and 95 HIV− postmenopausal women (33% AA and 67% Hispanic) underwent assessment of 25OHD, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone, markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry.

Results

The prevalence of low 25OHD did not differ by HIV status; the majority of both HIV+ and HIV− women (74–78%) had insufficient levels (<30 ng/ml). Regardless of HIV status, 25OHD was significantly lower in AA subjects, and higher in subjects who used both calcium and multi-vitamins. In HIV+ women on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 25OHD was directly associated with current CD4 count (r= 0.32; p<0.01) independent of age, ethnicity, BMI, or history of AIDS-defining illness. No association was observed between 1,25(OH)2D and CD4 count or between serum 25OHD, 1,25(OH)2D or PTH and type of ART.

Conclusions

In postmenopausal minority women, vitamin D deficiency was highly prevalent and associated with AA race and lack of supplement use, as well as lower current CD4 cell count. These results provide support for screening and repletion of vitamin D in HIV+ patients.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a clinical syndrome presenting with a malodorous vaginal discharge and increased vaginal pH. Diagnosis has been based on clinical Amsel criteria and direct Gram stain of vaginal secretions. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study contributed cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) samples. Lactobacilli, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Mycoplasma hominis in cervicovaginal lavage samples were quantified by PCR. Gynecologic evaluation included Nugent score and Amsel criterion assessment. We compared the gold standard Nugent score to Amsel criteria and quantitative bacterial PCR for diagnosing BV in 203 CVL samples from women with Nugent scores of 7 to 10 (BV group) and 203 samples from women with BV Nugent scores of 0 to 3 (“No-BV” group). Only 75 of the 203 CVL samples from women with Nugent scores of 7 to 10 met positive Amsel criteria. Increasing levels of G. vaginalis and M. hominis and decreasing levels of lactobacilli were significantly associated with BV by Nugent score. Of the group with Nugent scores of 7 to 10, 83% and 81% had log10 G. vaginalis counts and log10 M. hominis counts greater than 6.81 and 4.82, respectively, while only 30% and 31% of the group with Nugent scores of 0 to 3 were above these thresholds, respectively. There was significant overlap in the log10 lactobacillus counts between the two groups. Utilizing all three log10 bacterial counts (G. vaginalis, M. hominis, and lactobacilli) in our model improved the sensitivity and specificity to 83% and 78%, respectively, in comparison with Nugent score. In this cohort, Amsel criteria were poorly predictive of BV. PCR quantification of G. vaginalis and M. hominis from CVL is significantly more sensitive than Amsel criteria for diagnosing BV.

Background: Bacterial vaginosis is a common gynecologic infection that has been associated with a variety of gynecologic and obstetric complications, including pelvic inflammatory disease, postabortal infection and premature delivery. Recent studies suggest that bacterial vaginosis may increase a woman’s risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We undertook this study to assess whether the prevalence and characteristics of bacterial vaginosis differed according to HIV status in high-risk US women.

Methods: Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis was assessed by Gram’s stain and clinical criteria for 854 HIV-infected and 434 HIV-uninfected women enrolled in the HIV Epidemiology Research (HER) Study.Multiple logistic regression techniques were used to determine whether HIV infection independently predicted bacterial vaginosis.

Results: Almost half (46%) the women had bacterial vaginosis by Gram’s stain. The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis was 47% in the HIV-positive women compared with 44% in the HIV-negativewomen; this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.36). After adjustment for other covariates, HIV-positive women were more likely than HIV-negative women to have bacterial vaginosis (odds ratio (OR) 1.31; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01-1.70) by Gram's stain but not by clinical criteria (OR 1.16; CI 0.87-1.55). Among HIV-positive women, use of antiretroviral drugs was associated with a lower prevalence of bacterial vaginosis (adjusted OR 0.54; Cl 0.38 -0.77).

Conclusions: In this cross-sectional analysis of high-risk US women, HIV infection was positively correlated with bacterial vaginosis diagnosed by Gram’s stain.

Objective. To identify correlates of incident bacterial vaginosis (BV) diagnosed with Nugent scoring among high-risk women. Study Design. We conducted both cohort and case-crossover analyses, stratified by HIV infection status, based on 871 HIV-infected and 439 HIV-uninfected participants in the HIV Epidemiology Research Study, conducted in 4 US sites in 1993–2000. Results. BV incidence was 21% and 19% among HIV-infected and -uninfected women, respectively. Fewer correlates of BV were found with case-crossover than with cohort design. Reporting frequent coitus (regardless of consistency of condom use) was correlated with BV in cohort analyses but not in case-crossover analyses. The sole correlate of BV in both types of analyses was the detection of spermatozoa on Gram stain, which is a marker of semen exposure. Conclusion. The inconsistent association between condom use and BV in prior studies could be from reporting bias. We found evidence of a relationship between semen exposure and incident BV.

Background

The effects of HIV serostatus and combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) on plasma homocysteine (Hcy) are uncertain.

Methods

Plasma Hcy was assayed in a cross-sectional study of 249 HIV-infected and 127 HIV-uninfected women at the Bronx Women’s Interagency HIV Study site.

Results

Mean plasma Hcy was 7.42 ± 2.68 in HIV-infected and 7.18 ± 2.66 µmol/L in HIV-uninfected women (P = 0.40). Hyperhomocysteinemia (defined as Hcy > 10 µmol/L) was seen in 16.9% and 13.4 % of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women, respectively (P=0.45). Among HIV-infected women, cART use was not associated with Hcy level. Compared to the lowest quartile, women with Hcy in the highest quartile had lower mean serum vitamin B12 and RBC folate levels. In multivariate analysis that did not include micronutrient levels, age, serum creatinine and lower CD4% were significantly associated with plasma Hcy level in HIV-infected women.

Conclusions

Plasma Hcy was not associated with HIV serostatus or use of cART in this cross-sectional study. Reduced availability of folate cofactors for Hcy remethylation in HIV-infected women with lower folate intake and decreased health status may influence Hcy levels.

Objective:

Assess efficacy of intermittent intravaginal metronidazole gel treatment in reducing frequency of bacterial vaginosis (BV).

Design:

Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial.

Setting:

Postnatal and family planning clinics of the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital and two health centers in Blantyre, Malawi.

Participants:

Nonpregnant HIV-uninfected and -infected women.

Intervention:

Intravaginal metronidazole treatment and placebo gels provided at baseline and every 3 mo for 1 y.

Outcome measures:

Primary: Cross-sectional and longitudinal comparisons of BV frequency at baseline, 1 mo after product dispensation (post-treatment evaluation [PTE]), and every quarterly visit. Secondary: Effect of treatment on BV clearance and recurrence.

Results:

Baseline: 842 HIV-uninfected and 844 HIV-infected women were enrolled. The frequency of BV at baseline in treatment and placebo arms, respectively, was 45.9% and 46.8% among HIV-uninfected women, and 60.5% and 56.9% among HIV-infected women. Primary outcomes: At the PTEs the prevalence of BV was consistently lower in treatment than placebo arms irrespective of HIV status. The differences were statistically significant mainly in HIV-uninfected women. Prevalence of BV was also reduced over time in both treatment and placebo arms. In a multivariable analysis that controlled for other covariates, the effect of intravaginal metronidazole treatment gel compared with placebo was not substantial: adjusted relative risk (RR) 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.83–0.97 in HIV-uninfected women and adjusted RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.89–1.01 in HIV-infected women. Secondary outcomes: Intravaginal metronidazole treatment gel significantly increased BV clearance (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.34, 95% CI 1.07–1.67 among HIV-uninfected women and adjusted HR 1.29, 95% CI 1.06–1.58 among HIV-infected women) but was not associated with decreased BV recurrence. Safety: No serious adverse events were related to use of intravaginal gels.

Conclusion:

Intermittent microbicide treatment with intravaginal gels is an innovative approach that can reduce the frequency of vaginal infections such as BV.

Editorial Commentary

Background: Bacterial vaginosis (BV) results from a change in the normal balance of bacteria in the vaginal tract, and is very common. In pregnant women, it is associated with poorer outcomes in pregnancy, and is also linked with HIV transmission (although it is not certain that BV actually increases the chance of getting HIV—just because these two occur together it does not necessarily follow that one causes the other). BV can be treated with metronidazole tablets, although these can cause gut symptoms and should not be taken repeatedly. The researchers wanted to carry out a multiclinic–based trial to find out whether a metronidazole gel applied intermittently to the vagina (for five nights every three months) would reduce the frequency of BV among women in Malawi. HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women, recruited from postnatal and family planning clinics, were randomized to receive either metronidazole gels, or equivalent placebo gels, every three months and were then followed up for 12 months. The primary outcome for the trial was the proportion of women with BV at each quarterly follow-up visit, and the researchers intended to compare this outcome between treatment arms at each visit and also to look at the overall changes over time among women receiving either metronidazole or placebo, looking separately at HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women.

What this trial shows: In total 1,686 women took part in the trial (842 not infected with HIV, and 844 infected with HIV). The proportion of HIV-uninfected women with BV dropped by around 20% over the course of the trial, both in women using metronidazole and in those using placebo. However, when comparing the proportion of HIV-uninfected women with BV between the two arms of the trial, there did not seem to be a consistent effect: differences were statistically significant at some time points and not others. Among HIV-infected women, there was also a drop over the course of the trial in the proportion of women with BV, irrespective of whether they used metronidazole or placebo. Again, when comparing the rate of BV among HIV-infected women between study arms (metronidazole versus placebo), the researchers did not see a consistent trend; differences were statistically significant at some time points but not others. Overall, when comparing metronidazole and placebo in an analysis that controlled for other factors, the metronidazole gel seemed to show a small effect in reduction of BV among HIV-uninfected women, but no obvious effect among HIV-infected women.

Strengths and limitations: Strengths in the design of this trial include the sample size, which was appropriate to detect an important effect of the metronidazole gel (versus placebo) had one existed, and the randomization and blinding procedures, which were designed to minimize the chance that the trialists or women being enrolled could anticipate to which arm of the trial they might be assigned. A key limitation of this study, as the researchers acknowledge, is the absence of a “no treatment” study arm. The frequency of BV dropped over the course of the trial in women using the placebo gel, raising the possibility that the placebo actually has some effect on bacteria in the vagina. However, a trial with a “no treatment” arm would pose its own problems, since trialists and participants would then not be fully blinded as to their treatment status.

Contribution to the evidence: This trial adds data on the efficacy of metronidazole gel when used intermittently, and among women in the community who may or may not actually have BV. Previous studies have evaluated treatment with metronidazole among women who already have symptoms or a diagnosis of BV. The findings of this trial rule out a substantial effect of metronidazole gel, as compared to placebo gel, in reducing the frequency of BV in this setting.

In a prospective study, Craig Cohen and colleagues investigate the association between bacterial vaginosis and the risk of female-to-male HIV-1 transmission.

Background

Bacterial vaginosis (BV), a disruption of the normal vaginal flora, has been associated with a 60% increased risk of HIV-1 acquisition in women and higher concentration of HIV-1 RNA in the genital tract of HIV-1–infected women. However, whether BV, which is present in up to half of African HIV-1–infected women, is associated with an increase in HIV-1 transmission to male partners has not been assessed in previous studies.

Methods and Findings

We assessed the association between BV on female-to-male HIV-1 transmission risk in a prospective study of 2,236 HIV-1–seropositive women and their HIV-1 uninfected male partners from seven African countries from a randomized placebo-controlled trial that enrolled heterosexual African adults who were seropositive for both HIV-1 and herpes simplex virus (HSV)-2, and their HIV-1–seronegative partners. Participants were followed for up to 24 months; every three months, vaginal swabs were obtained from female partners for Gram stain and male partners were tested for HIV-1. BV and normal vaginal flora were defined as a Nugent score of 7–10 and 0–3, respectively. To reduce misclassification, HIV-1 sequence analysis of viruses from seroconverters and their partners was performed to determine linkage of HIV-1 transmissions. Overall, 50 incident HIV-1 infections occurred in men in which the HIV-1–infected female partner had an evaluable vaginal Gram stain. HIV-1 incidence in men whose HIV-1–infected female partners had BV was 2.91 versus 0.76 per 100 person-years in men whose female partners had normal vaginal flora (hazard ratio 3.62, 95% CI 1.74–7.52). After controlling for sociodemographic factors, sexual behavior, male circumcision, sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy, and plasma HIV-1 RNA levels in female partners, BV was associated with a greater than 3-fold increased risk of female-to-male HIV-1 transmission (adjusted hazard ratio 3.17, 95% CI 1.37–7.33).

Conclusions

This study identified an association between BV and increased risk of HIV-1 transmission to male partners. Several limitations may affect the generalizability of our results including: all participants underwent couples HIV counseling and testing and enrolled in an HIV-1 prevention trial, and index participants had a baseline CD4 count ≥250 cells/mm3 and were HSV-2 seropositive. Given the high prevalence of BV and the association of BV with increased risk of both female HIV-1 acquisition and transmission found in our study, if this association proves to be causal, BV could be responsible for a substantial proportion of new HIV-1 infections in Africa. Normalization of vaginal flora in HIV-1–infected women could mitigate female-to-male HIV-1 transmission.

Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.com NCT00194519

Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary

Editors' Summary

Background

Since the first reported case of AIDS in 1981, the number of people infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, has risen steadily. By the end of 2010, 34 million people were living with HIV/AIDS. At the beginning of the epidemic more men than women were infected with HIV. Now, however, 50% of all adults infected with HIV are women and in sub-Saharan Africa, where two-thirds of HIV-positive people live, women account for 59% of people living with HIV. Moreover, among 15–24 year-olds, women are eight times more likely than men to be HIV-positive. This pattern of infection has developed because most people in sub-Saharan Africa contract HIV through unprotected heterosexual sex. The risk of HIV transmission for both men and women in Africa and elsewhere can be reduced by abstaining from sex, by only having one or a few partners, by always using condoms, and by male circumcision. In addition, several studies suggest that antiretroviral therapy (ART) greatly reduces HIV transmission.

Why Was This Study Done?

Unfortunately, in sub-Saharan Africa, only about a fifth of HIV-positive people are currently receiving ART, which means that there is an urgent need to find other effective ways to reduce HIV transmission in this region. In this prospective cohort study (a type of study that follows a group of people for some time to see which personal characteristics are associated with disease development), the researchers investigate whether bacterial vaginosis—a condition in which harmful bacteria disrupt the normal vaginal flora—increases the risk of female-to-male HIV transmission among African couples. Bacterial vaginosis, which is extremely common in sub-Saharan Africa, has been associated with an increased risk of HIV acquisition in women and induces viral replication and shedding in the vagina in HIV-positive women, which may mean that HIV-positive women with bacterial vaginosis are more likely to transmit HIV to their male partners than women without this condition. If this is the case, then interventions that reduce the incidence of bacterial vaginosis might be valuable HIV prevention strategies.

What Did the Researchers Do and Find?

The researchers analyzed data collected from 2,236 heterosexual African couples enrolled in a clinical trial (the Partners in Prevention HSV/HIV Transmission Study) whose primary aim was to investigate whether suppression of herpes simplex virus infection could prevent HIV transmission. In all the couples, the woman was HIV-positive and the man was initially HIV-negative. The female partners were examined every three months for the presence of bacterial vaginosis and the male partners were tested regularly for HIV infection. The researchers also determined whether the men who became HIV-positive were infected with the same HIV strain as their partner to check that their infection had been acquired from this partner. The HIV incidence in men whose partners had bacterial vaginosis was 2.9 per 100 person-years (that is, 2.9 out of every 100 men became HIV-positive per year) whereas the HIV incidence in men whose partners had a normal vaginal flora was 0.76 per 100 person-years. After controlling for factors that might affect the risk of HIV transmission such as male circumcision and viral levels in female partner's blood, the researchers estimated that bacterial vaginosis was associated with a 3.17-fold increased risk of female-to-male HIV transmission in their study population.

What Do These Findings Mean?

These findings suggest that HIV-positive African women with bacterial vaginosis are more than three times as likely to transmit HIV to their male partners as those with a normal vaginal flora. It is possible that some unknown characteristic of the men in this study might have increased both their own risk of HIV infection and their partner's risk of bacterial vaginosis. Nevertheless, because bacterial vaginosis is so common in Africa (half of the women in this study had bacterial vaginosis at least once during follow-up) and because this condition is associated with both female HIV acquisition and transmission, these findings suggest that bacterial vaginosis could be responsible for a substantial proportion of new HIV infections in Africa. Normalization of vaginal flora in HIV-infected women by frequent presumptive treatment with antimicrobials (treatment with a curative dose of antibiotics without testing for bacterial vaginosis) or possibly by treatment with probiotics (live “good” bacteria) might, therefore, reduce female-to-male HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa.

Additional Information

Please access these Web sites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001251.

Information is available from the US National Institute of Allergy and infectious diseases on all aspects of HIV infection and AIDS and on bacterial vaginosis

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has information on all aspects of HIV/AIDS, including specific information about HIV/AIDS and women; it also has information on bacterial vaginosis (in English and Spanish)

NAM/aidsmap provides basic information about HIV/AIDS, and summaries of recent research findings on HIV care and treatment, and information on bacterial vaginosis and HIV transmission (in several languages)

Information is available from Avert, an international AIDS nonprofit group on many aspects of HIV/AIDS, including detailed information on HIV and AIDS prevention, on women, HIV and AIDS and on HIV/AIDS in Africa (in English and Spanish); personal stories of women living with HIV are available; the website Healthtalkonline also provides personal stories about living with HIV

More information about the Partners in Prevention HSV/HIV Transmission Study is available

Although low plasma vitamin A levels are associated with increased mortality and higher vertical transmission during human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, it is unknown whether plasma low vitamin A levels are a marker for circulating HIV load. We conducted a cross-sectional study within a prospective cohort study of injection drug users in order to evaluate the relationship between plasma vitamin A levels and HIV viral load. Plasma vitamin A level was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Infectious viral load was measured by quantitative microculture of serial fivefold dilutions of 10(6) peripheral blood mononuclear cells. A total of 284 HIV-infected adults (79 women, 205 men) were studied. Plasma vitamin A levels consistent with deficiency were found in 28.9% of adults. A total of 38.0% of women and 25.3% of men had vitamin A deficiency (P < 0.04). The median infectious viral load for the entire study population was 8 infectious units per million cells. No significant relationship between plasma vitamin A levels and infectious viral load was observed in these injection drug users. This study suggests that there is no correlation between HIV viral load and plasma vitamin A levels in injection drug users, and these variables may represent independent risk factors during HIV infection. HIV-infected adult women appear to be at higher risk of developing vitamin A deficiency.

The etiology of bacterial vaginosis is unknown, and there are no long-term therapies for preventing this frequently recurring condition. Vaginal douching has been reported to be associated with bacterial vaginosis in observational studies. However, this association may be due to confounding by indication—that is, confounding by women douching in response to vaginal symptoms associated with bacterial vaginosis. The authors used marginal structural modeling to estimate the causal effect of douching on bacterial vaginosis risk while controlling for this confounding effect. In 1999–2002, nonpregnant women (n = 3,620) were recruited into a prospective study when they visited one of 12 public health clinics in Birmingham, Alabama, for routine care. Participants were assessed quarterly for 1 year. Bacterial vaginosis was based on a Nugent's Gram stain score of 7 or higher. Thirty-two percent of participants douched in every study interval, and 43.0% never douched. Of the 12,349 study visits, 40.2% were classified as involving bacterial vaginosis. The relative risk for regular douching as compared with no douching was 1.21 (95% confidence interval: 1.08, 1.38). These findings indicate that douching confers increased risk of disruption of vaginal flora. In the absence of a large randomized trial, these findings provide the best evidence to date for a risk of bacterial vaginosis associated with douching.

Objective

To assess the association of HIV infection, HIV disease parameters (including CD4+ T-cell counts, HIV viral load, and AIDS) and antiretroviral medication use with subclinical carotid artery atherosclerosis.

Design

Cross-sectional study nested within a prospective cohort study

Methods

Among participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (1,331 HIV-infected women, 534 HIV-uninfected women) and Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (600 HIV-infected men, 325 HIV-uninfected men), we measured subclinical carotid artery lesions and common carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) using B-mode ultrasound. We estimated adjusted mean CIMT differences and prevalence ratios (PRs) for carotid lesions associated with HIV-related disease and treatments, with multivariate adjustment to control for possible confounding variables.

Results

Among HIV-infected individuals, a low CD4+ T cell count was independently associated with an increased prevalence of carotid lesions. Compared to the reference group of HIV-uninfected individuals, the adjusted PR for lesions among HIV-infected individuals with CD4+ T-cell count <200 cells/mm3 was 2.00 (95% confidence interval 1.22, 3.28) in women and 1.74 (95% confidence interval 1.04, 2.93) in men. No consistent association of antiretroviral medications with carotid atherosclerosis was observed, except for a borderline significant association between protease inhibitor use and carotid lesions in men (with no association among women). History of clinical AIDS and HIV viral load were not significantly associated with carotid atherosclerosis.

Conclusions

Beyond traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors, low CD4+ T-cell count is the most robust risk factor for increased subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in HIV-infected women and men.

Background

Low vitamin E levels are often found in HIV-1 infection, and studies have suggested that higher levels may decrease the risk of disease progression. However, vitamin E supplementation has also been reported to increase CCR5 expression, which could increase HIV-1 replication. We hypothesized that vitamin E levels at HIV-1 acquisition may influence disease progression.

Methods

Vitamin E status was measured in stored samples from the last pre-infection visit for 67 Kenyan women with reliably estimated dates of HIV-1 acquisition. Regression analyses were used to estimate associations between pre-infection vitamin E and plasma viral load, time to CD4 count <200 cells/μL, and mortality.

Results

After controlling for potential confounding factors, each 1 mg/L increase in pre-infection vitamin E was associated with 0.08 log10 copies/mL (95% CI -0.01 to +0.17) higher set point viral load and 1.58-fold higher risk of mortality (95% CI 1.15–2.16). The association between higher pre-infection vitamin E and mortality persisted after adjustment for set point viral load (HR 1.55, 95% CI 1.13–2.13).

Conclusion

Higher pre-infection vitamin E levels were associated with increased mortality. Further research is needed to elucidate the role vitamin E plays in HIV-1 pathogenesis.

Objective

Certain cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) fluid samples obtained from HIV-1–infected and uninfected women stimulate in vitro HIV-1 replication. This activity, HIV-inducing factor (HIF), changes when CVL fluid is heated. We sought to confirm a previous observation that HIF was associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV).

Methods

HIF was measured in unheated and heated CVL fluid obtained from HIV-1–infected women and compared with the presence of BV by Nugent scores, other genital tract conditions, and cervicovaginal HIV-1 shedding.

Results

Among the 295 women studied, 54% of CVL samples had HIF activity and 21% showed heat-stable HIF activity. In adjusted logistic regression, heat-stable HIF was associated with BV (odds ratio [OR] = 51.7, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.0, 530.7) and with intermediate flora (OR = 43.3, 95% CI: 3.6, 521.1); heat-labile HIF was not associated with BV. Neither heat-stable nor heat-labile HIF was associated with other cervicovaginal conditions nor, after controlling for plasma viral load, with genital tract HIV-1 shedding.

Conclusion

We confirmed the association of HIF with BV and attribute it to the heat-stable component. Heat-stable activity is also associated, although less strongly, with intermediate vaginal flora. We propose that heat-stable HIF is a result of products of BV-associated bacteria.

Vitamin D is a pleiotropic secosteroid hormone important for health and disease prevention. The actions of vitamin D are mediated by the vitamin D receptor that binds the active form of vitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] to induce both transcriptional and non-genomic responses. Vitamin D has well known classical functions in calcium uptake and bone metabolism, but more recent work highlights the importance of the nonclassical actions of vitamin D in a variety of cell types. These actions include modulation of the innate and adaptive immune systems and regulation of cell proliferation. Adequate vitamin D intake is essential for maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, and epidemiological data indicate that many pregnant women have sub-optimal vitamin D levels. Notably, vitamin D deficiency correlates with preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, and bacterial vaginosis, and an increased risk for C-section delivery. Recent work emphasizes the importance of nonclassical roles of vitamin D in pregnancy and the placenta. The placenta produces and responds to vitamin D where vitamin D functions as a modulator of implantation, cytokine production and the immune response to infection. We describe vitamin D metabolism and the cellular responses to vitamin D, and then summarize the role of vitamin D in placental trophoblast, pregnancy and the fetus.

Background and purpose

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons taking highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) may have an increased risk for cardiovascular-related events, although the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We tested the hypothesis that carotid arterial stiffness was higher among persons taking HAART compared to HAART-naïve and HIV-uninfected persons.

Methods

Between 2004 and 2006, we performed high resolution B-mode ultrasound on 2,789 HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected participants of the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS; 1865 women) and the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS; 924 men) and determined carotid arterial distensibility, a direct measure of carotid arterial stiffness. We used generalized estimating equations to evaluate the association between distensibility and HIV infection, CD4+ cell count, and exposure to HAART adjusted for demographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics.

Results

In multivariable analysis, distensibility was 4.3% lower (95% confidence interval (CI): -7.4% to -1.1%) among HIV-infected versus uninfected participants. Among HIV-infected participants with fewer than 200 CD4+ cells, distensibility was 10.5% lower (95% CI: -14.5% to -6.2%) than that among HIV-uninfected participants, and this effect did not differ significantly by cohort or race. Concurrent HAART use was independently associated with lower distensibility among MACS participants but not among WIHS participants.

Conclusions

Our finding that advanced HIV-related immunosuppression was associated with increased carotid arterial stiffness independent from the effects of traditional atherosclerosis risk factors suggests that the etiologic mechanism underlying reports of an increased cardiovascular disease risk among HIV-infected individuals might involve HIV-related immunosuppression leading to vascular dysfunction and arterial stiffening.

Background

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is known to be a major public health problem among women of reproductive age in South East Asia and Africa. In Ethiopia, there are no studies conducted on serum vitamin A status of HIV-infected pregnant women. Therefore, the present study was aimed at determining the level of serum vitamin A and VAD among pregnant women with and without HIV infection in tropical settings of Northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, blood samples were collected from 423 pregnant women and from 55 healthy volunteers who visited the University of Gondar Hospital. Serum concentration of vitamin A was measured by high performance liquid chromatography.

Results

After controlling for total serum protein, albumin and demographic variables, the mean ± SD serum vitamin A in HIV seropositive pregnant women (0.96 ± 0.42 μmol/L) was significantly lower than that in pregnant women without HIV infection (1.10 ± 0.45 μmol/L, P < 0.05). Likewise, the level of serum vitamin A in HIV seropositive non-pregnant women (0.74 ± 0.39) was significantly lower than that in HIV negative non-pregnant women (1.18 ± 0.59 μmol/L, P < 0.004). VAD (serum retinol < 0.7 μmol/L) was observed in 18.4% and 17.7% of HIV infected and uninfected pregnant women, respectively. Forty six percent of non-pregnant women with HIV infection had VAD while only 28% controls were deficient for vitamin A (P = 0.002).

Conclusion

The present study shows that VAD is a major public health problem among pregnant women in the tropical settings of Northwest Ethiopia. Considering the possible implications of VAD during pregnancy, we recommend multivitamin (which has a lower level of vitamin A) supplementation in the care and management of pregnant women with or without HIV infection.

Bacterial vaginosis is a common condition associated with increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus infections. In contrast, vulvovaginal candidiasis has a much weaker association with sexually transmitted diseases. We found that vaginal lavage fluid from women with bacterial vaginosis is deficient in antimicrobial polypeptides and antimicrobial activity compared to fluid from healthy women or women with vulvovaginal candidiasis. Effective treatment normalized the concentrations of antimicrobial polypeptides in both bacterial vaginosis and in vulvovaginal candidiasis, suggesting that the abnormalities were a result of the diseases. Unlike in vulvovaginal candidiasis, the neutrophil attractant chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8) was not increased in bacterial vaginosis, accounting for low concentrations of neutrophil-derived defensins in vaginal fluid. In organotypic cultures of human vaginal epithelium containing dendritic cells, treatment with Lactobacillus jensenii, a typical vaginal resident, induced the synthesis of IL-8 mRNA and the epithelial human β-defensin-2 mRNA, but a typical bacterial vaginosis pathogen, Gardnerella vaginalis, had no effect. When the two bacteria were combined, Gardnerella vaginalis did not interfere with the immunostimulatory effect of Lactobacillus jensenii. The loss of normal immunostimulatory flora in bacterial vaginosis is thus associated with a local deficiency of multiple innate immune factors, and this deficiency could predispose individuals to sexually transmitted diseases.

Objective. To evaluate associations between common vaginal infections and human papillomavirus (HPV). Study Design. Data from up to 15 visits on 756 HIV-infected women and 380 high-risk HIV-uninfected women enrolled in the HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS) were evaluated for associations of bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and vaginal Candida colonization with prevalent HPV, incident HPV, and clearance of HPV in multivariate analysis. Results. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) was associated with increased odds for prevalent (aOR = 1.14, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.26) and incident (aOR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.47) HPV and with delayed clearance of infection (aHR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.72, 0.97). Whereas BV at the preceding or current visit was associated with incident HPV, in an alternate model for the outcome of incident BV, HPV at the current, but not preceding, visit was associated with incident BV. Conclusion. These findings underscore the importance of prevention and successful treatment of bacterial vaginosis.

Aims:

This study was undertaken to estimate the incidence of bacterial vaginosis (BV) and other vaginal infections during pregnancy and its association with urinary tract infections (UTI) and its consequences on pregnancy outcome, maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality.

Settings and Design:

Prospective cohort study.

Materials and Methods:

The present prospective cohort study was conducted on 200 women attending the antenatal clinic (ANC) of a tertiary hospital. All pertinent obstetric and neonatal data covering antenatal events during the course of pregnancy, delivery, puerperium and condition of each newborn at the time of birth were collected. BV was detected by both Gram stain and gold standard clinical criteria (Amsel’s composite criteria).

Statistical analysis used:

Data were analyzed using SPSS version 9. Fischer’s exact test, chi square tests and Student’s’ test has been used for analysis. The probability of 5% was considered as significant for continuous variables such as age, period of gestation and birth weight. Odds ratio (OR) and confidence interval (CI) with 95% probability were determined.

Results:

The incidence of bacterial vaginosis was 41 in 200 patients. Adverse outcomes such as preterm labor, PROM and fetal complications were found more in pregnant women who had bacterial vaginosis (N=41), bacterial vaginosis with UTI (N=14) as compared to those without bacterial vaginosis (N=118).

Conclusions:

The incidence of poor pregnancy outcome was higher in bacterial vaginosis with UTI. Prevention of BV and UTI is cost effective to minimize the pregnancy-related complications and preterm labor to decrease in perinatal and maternal mortality and morbidity. We recommend all antenatal patients should be screened for the presence of bacterial vaginosis, other infections and UTI.

As a consequence of newly elevated standards for normal vitamin D levels, there is a renewed interest in vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency (<32 and <20 ng/ml, respectively) in the orthopedic patient population. This study tests the hypothesis that vitamin D insufficiency is comparably prevalent among both high- and low-energy fracture patients. A retrospective analysis of the medical records for 44 orthopedic trauma in-patients with non-vertebral fractures was conducted from June 1, 2006 to February 1, 2007. The obtained data included a 25-hydroxyvitamin D level, age, gender, and reason for admission; high-energy vs. low-energy fracture. Vitamin D insufficiency, 25(OH)D <32 ng/ml, was found in 59.1% of the patients. Significantly, more women (75%) than men (40%) were vitamin D insufficient among all fracture patients and specifically among high-energy fractures, 80% women insufficient vs. 25% men insufficient. In women, both high- and low-energy fractures present with vitamin D insufficiency (80% of high-energy fractures and 71.4% of low-energy fractures). In men, the mean vitamin D level was lower for low-energy fractures (16 ng/ml) compared to high-energy fractures (32 ng/ml). In addition, men with low-energy fractures were significantly older than men with high-energy fractures and women with low-energy fractures were also older. Statistically, more vitamin D insufficiency is seen in women and our results are consistent with the gender difference seen in the general population. Even among younger men who sustain a high-energy fracture, 25% are vitamin D insufficient. Women with fractures regardless of age or fracture energy level have low vitamin D levels. Levels of 25(OH)D should be measured in all orthopedic trauma patients and the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research and National Osteoporosis Foundation currently recommend that vitamin D levels should be corrected.

Our objective was to describe the prevalence of low concentrations of retinol, β-carotene, and vitamin E in a group of HIV-infected Latin American children and a comparison group of HIV-exposed, uninfected children. Our hypothesis was that the rates of low concentrations of these micronutrients would be higher in the HIV-infected group than those in the HIV-exposed, uninfected group. This was a cross-sectional substudy of a larger cohort study at clinical pediatric HIV centers in Latin America. Serum levels of micronutrients were measured in the first stored sample obtained after each child’s first birthday by high-performance liquid chromatography. Low concentrations of retinol, β-carotene and vitamin E were defined as serum levels below 0.70 μmol/L, 0.35 μmol/L and 18.0 μmol/L, respectively. The population for this analysis was 336 children (124 HIV-infected, 212 HIV-exposed, uninfected) aged ≥ 1 to < 4 years of age. Rates of low concentrations were 74% for retinol, 27% for β-carotene, and 89% for vitamin E. These rates were not affected by HIV status. Among the HIV-infected children those treated with antiretrovirals were less likely to have retinol deficiency, but no other HIV-related factors correlated with micronutrient low serum levels. Low concentrations of retinol, β-carotene and vitamin E are very common in children exposed to HIV living in Brazil, Argentina and Mexico, regardless of HIV-infection status.

Objectives:

As the aetiology of bacterial vaginosis (BV) is not well understood, this study sought to determine the relationships between several fastidious microbes, BV and selected clinical characteristics of BV.

Methods:

Endometrial and cervical specimens from 50 women with non-gonococcal, non-chlamydial endometritis were tested for Leptotrichia sanguinegens/amnionii, Atopobium vaginae, bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria 1 (BVAB1), Ureaplasma urealyticum biovar 2 (UU-2) and Ureaplasma parvum using PCR. BV was categorised using Nugent’s and Amsel’s criteria. Odds ratios (OR) adjusted for age and race were estimated using multivariable logistic regression.

Results:

Although elevated pH was a universal feature, other BV characteristics differed by pathogen, suggesting variable clinical presentation. Only UU-2 was strongly associated with vaginal discharge, but a positive whiff test and a 20% or greater classification of epithelial cells as clue cells were more common among women with L sanguinegens/amnionii, A vaginae and BVAB1. For each of these bacteria, there were trends towards associations with BV defined by Amsel’s criteria (L sanguinegens/amnionii OR 2.9, 95% CI 0.5 to 15.7; A vaginae OR 2.6, 95% CI 0.6 to 11.4; BVAB1 OR 5.7, 95% CI 1.0 to 31.1) and significant associations with BV defined by Gram stain (L sanguinegens/amnionii OR 17.7, 95% CI 2.8 to 113.0; A vaginae OR 19.2, 95% CI 3.7 to 98.7; BVAB1 OR 21.1, 95% CI 2.2 to 198.5).

Conclusions:

L sanguinegens/amnionii, A vaginae and BVAB1 are associated with clinical characteristics consistent with BV and BV defined by Nugent’s and Amsel’s criteria. These fastidious bacteria may cause unrecognised infection, as none was associated with abnormal vaginal discharge.

HIV infection is associated with left ventricular (LV) dysfunction and accelerated atherosclerosis. These conditions result in elevation of plasma natriuretic peptide (NP) levels. The present study compares N-terminal-pro-BNP (NT-pro-BNP) levels in HIV-infected and -uninfected women and identifies factors influencing NT-pro-BNP levels in HIV-infected women. A total of 454 HIV-infected and 200 HIV-uninfected participants from the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) had NT-pro-BNP determination. Elevated NT-pro-BNP level was defined using previously determined age stratified cut-off values of >164 ng/liter (age <60 years) and >225 (age ≥60 years). HIV-infected women were older (41.6 ± 8.9 vs. 38.9 ± 10.5 years, p <0.01) and were more likely to have anemia, hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibodies, and kidney dysfunction than HIV-uninfected women. HIV-infected women had significantly higher NT-pro-BNP levels (142.4 ± 524.8 vs. 73.6 ± 115.1 ng/liter, p = 0.01) and a higher prevalence of elevated NT-pro-BNP (12.1% vs. 7.5%; p = 0.08). In univariate analyses, elevated NT-pro-BNP was significantly associated with age, systolic BP, hypertension, anemia, triglyceride levels, kidney disease, and HCV seropositivity, but not HIV infection. In multivariate analysis, elevated NT-pro-BNP levels were significantly associated with anemia and kidney function, and had a borderline association with the presence of HCV antibodies. Among HIV-infected women, NT-pro-BNP levels were not independently associated with measures of severity of infection or with HAART use. Although HIV-infected women have higher NT-pro-BNP levels than HIV-uninfected women, the differences are due to non-HIV factors such as anemia, kidney disease, and HCV coinfection. These findings suggest that natriuretic peptide levels are a global marker of comorbidity in the setting of HIV infection.

Introduction

The use of hormonal contraception (HC) is increasing in HIV-infected women. Both HC and HIV infection have been associated with adverse metabolic outcomes. We investigated the association of progestin-only and combined (estrogen/progestin) HC with disorders of glucose and lipid metabolism in HIV-infected and uninfected women.

Methods

Linear mixed models evaluated the association of HC type with fasting HDL, LDL, triglycerides, the homeostasis model assessment estimate of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and glucose in 885 HIV-infected and 408 HIV-uninfected women from the Women's Interagency HIV Study seen between October 2000 and September 2005.

Results

Compared to non-HC users, progestin-only HC was independently associated with lower HDL (-3mg/dL;95% confidence interval[CI]:-5,-1 in HIV-infected and -6mg/dL;95% CI:-9,-3 in HIV-uninfected women), greater HOMA (+0.86;95% CI:0.51,1.22 and +0.56;95% CI:0.12,1.01). Combined HC was associated with higher HDL(+5mg/dL;95% CI:2,7 and +5mg/dL;95% CI:3,7).

Conclusion

Progestin–only HC is associated with lower HDL and greater HOMA-IR than non-HC users. Combined HC may be preferred in HIV-infected women of reproductive age at risk for cardiovascular disease, but interactions with antiretroviral therapy that may impair contraceptive efficacy have been reported. Alternative HC methods that minimize adverse outcomes but maintain efficacy require further study.

Background

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common cause of vaginitis and, for unknown reasons, is common in lesbian and bisexual women. We defined risks for prevalent BV in lesbian and bisexual women with attention to detailed sexual risk history.

Methods

Women 16 to 35 years reporting sex with ≥1 woman in prior year underwent computer-assisted self-interview with extensive sexual and medical history. BV was defined by Amsel criteria, and associations with subject characteristics were estimated by Poisson regression and generalized estimating equation to adjust for potential coenrollment of current sexual partners.

Results

Of 335 participants (median age, 25 years; 22% nonwhite race), 6% reported douching, 24% sex with men, and 91% any sex in the prior 3 months. 96 (29%) had BV, 40% of whom reported corresponding symptoms. BV was associated with reporting a partner with BV (39% vs. 12%; multivariate relative risk [MRR], 4.53 [2.59 –7.93]), vaginal lubricant use (59% vs. 21%; MRR, 1.86 [0.94 –3.68]), or sharing vaginal sex toys in prior 3 months (33% vs. 21%; MRR, 1.70 [0.96 –3.01]). No association was seen for age, race, smoking, hormone use, douching, vaginal, anal or oral sex, or numbers of new partners. Lubricant use and shared vaginal toys were correlated (Spearman 0.29).

Conclusions

BV is associated with practices that efficiently transmit vaginal fluid and with use of vaginal lubricant; since these are correlated, assessing independent effects will require further analysis. More research is required to understand relationships between role of transmission of BV-associated bacteria and vaginal lubricant on BV pathogenesis.