Related Articles

Although an association between the metabolic syndrome and hyperandrogenism has been suggested in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome, few studies have investigated this relationship in postmenopausal women. We measured estradiol, testosterone, and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and calculated the free androgen index (FAI) in 212 postmenopausal women not using hormone therapy in the Women's Health Study. A modified ATP III definition of the metabolic syndrome (3 or more of the following: abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, low HDL, elevated blood pressure, and abnormal glucose metabolism) was used. Women with the metabolic syndrome had higher mean levels of estradiol, testosterone, and FAI values, and lower SHBG levels. Higher FAI and lower SHBG were associated with all components of the metabolic syndrome. After adjustment for BMI and other factors, women in the highest tertile of FAI had an OR of 12.6 (95% CI: 3.8, 41.6) for the metabolic syndrome, while those in the lowest SHBG tertile had an OR of 7.3 (95% CI: 2.7, 19.8). When stratified by BMI, the associations with high FAI and low SHBG remained significant even in women with BMI < 26.7 kg/m2. An androgenic hormone profile is associated with both the individual components of the metabolic syndrome and clustering of metabolic abnormalities in postmenopausal women.

Background:

Breast cancer risk for postmenopausal women is positively associated with circulating concentrations of oestrogens and androgens, but the determinants of these hormones are not well understood.

Methods:

Cross-sectional analyses of breast cancer risk factors and circulating hormone concentrations in more than 6000 postmenopausal women controls in 13 prospective studies.

Results:

Concentrations of all hormones were lower in older than younger women, with the largest difference for dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS), whereas sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) was higher in the older women. Androgens were lower in women with bilateral ovariectomy than in naturally postmenopausal women, with the largest difference for free testosterone. All hormones were higher in obese than lean women, with the largest difference for free oestradiol, whereas SHBG was lower in obese women. Smokers of 15+ cigarettes per day had higher levels of all hormones than non-smokers, with the largest difference for testosterone. Drinkers of 20+ g alcohol per day had higher levels of all hormones, but lower SHBG, than non-drinkers, with the largest difference for DHEAS. Hormone concentrations were not strongly related to age at menarche, parity, age at first full-term pregnancy or family history of breast cancer.

Conclusion:

Sex hormone concentrations were strongly associated with several established or suspected risk factors for breast cancer, and may mediate the effects of these factors on breast cancer risk.

Background

Androgenicity, as measured by low sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and elevations in testosterone and free androgen index (FAI), is associated with adverse cardiovascular (CV) outcomes, possibly due to effects on insulin resistance and glycemia.

Methods

Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) concentration, total testosterone, estradiol, SHBG, FAI, free estrogen index (FEI), and HbA1c were available in 200 nondiabetic postmenopausal women who were not using hormone therapy (HT) in the Women's Health Study. Of these, 98 were CVD cardiovascular disease (CVD) cases, while the remainders were matched controls. To achieve normality, continuous values were log transformed and geometric means were calculated. Associations between sex hormones and HbA1c were examined using general linear models (GLM), partial correlations and multiple linear regression analyses.

Results

Lower SHBG levels and higher FAI and HbA1c values were found among women who were CVD cardiovascular disease (CVD) cases compared to controls, and all analyses were adjusted for this factor. In GLM, higher values of HbA1c were observed in the highest quartiles of FAI and the lowest quartiles of SHBG. However, the correlation between SHBG and HbA1c across quartiles was eliminated after adjusting for body mass index (BMI). In partial correlations, HbA1c values were inversely associated with SHBG (r=-0.19, p=0.008) and positively associated with FAI (r=0.19, p=0.01), even after adjusting for age, CVD case-control status and BMI. In multivariable linear models, a significant inverse association between SHBG and HbA1c persisted, as well as, a significant positive association between FAI and HbA1c.

Conclusions

Androgenicity, as measured by low SHBG and high FAI, is associated with glycemia, and thereby may contribute to CVD risk in post-menopausal women.

Introduction

Prospective epidemiologic studies have consistently shown that levels of circulating androgens in postmenopausal women are positively associated with breast cancer risk. However, data in premenopausal women are limited.

Methods

A case-control study nested within the New York University Women's Health Study was conducted. A total of 356 cases (276 invasive and 80 in situ) and 683 individually-matched controls were included. Matching variables included age and date, phase, and day of menstrual cycle at blood donation. Testosterone, androstenedione, dehydroandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) were measured using direct immunoassays. Free testosterone was calculated.

Results

Premenopausal serum testosterone and free testosterone concentrations were positively associated with breast cancer risk. In models adjusted for known risk factors of breast cancer, the odds ratios for increasing quintiles of testosterone were 1.0 (reference), 1.5 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.9 to 2.3), 1.2 (95% CI, 0.7 to 1.9), 1.4 (95% CI, 0.9 to 2.3) and 1.8 (95% CI, 1.1 to 2.9; Ptrend = 0.04), and for free testosterone were 1.0 (reference), 1.2 (95% CI, 0.7 to 1.8), 1.5 (95% CI, 0.9 to 2.3), 1.5 (95% CI, 0.9 to 2.3), and 1.8 (95% CI, 1.1 to 2.8, Ptrend = 0.01). A marginally significant positive association was observed with androstenedione (P = 0.07), but no association with DHEAS or SHBG. Results were consistent in analyses stratified by tumor type (invasive, in situ), estrogen receptor status, age at blood donation, and menopausal status at diagnosis. Intra-class correlation coefficients for samples collected from 0.8 to 5.3 years apart (median 2 years) in 138 cases and 268 controls were greater than 0.7 for all biomarkers except for androstenedione (0.57 in controls).

Conclusions

Premenopausal concentrations of testosterone and free testosterone are associated with breast cancer risk. Testosterone and free testosterone measurements are also highly reliable (that is, a single measurement is reflective of a woman's average level over time). Results from other prospective studies are consistent with our results. The impact of including testosterone or free testosterone in breast cancer risk prediction models for women between the ages of 40 and 50 years should be assessed. Improving risk prediction models for this age group could help decision making regarding both screening and chemoprevention of breast cancer.

Abstract

Background

Androgenicity, as measured by low sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and elevations in testosterone and free androgen index (FAI), is associated with adverse cardiovascular (CV) outcomes, possibly due to effects on insulin resistance and glycemia.

Methods

Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) concentration, SHBG, and sex hormones were available in 200 non-diabetic postmenopausal women who were not using hormone therapy (HT) in the Women's Health Study. Of these, 98 were cardiovascular disease (CVD) cases; the remainders were matched controls. To achieve normality, continuous values were log transformed and geometric means were calculated. Associations between sex hormones and HbA1c were examined using general linear models (GLM), partial correlations, and multiple linear regression analyses.

Results

Lower SHBG levels and higher FAI and HbA1c values were found among the CVD cases, and all analyses were adjusted for this factor. In GLM, higher values of HbA1c were observed in the highest quartiles of FAI and the lowest quartiles of SHBG. However, the correlation between SHBG and HbA1c across quartiles was eliminated after adjusting for body mass index (BMI). In partial correlations, HbA1c values were inversely associated with SHBG (r = −0.19, P = 0.008) and positively associated with FAI (r = 0.19, P = 0.01), even after adjusting for age, CVD case–control status, and BMI. In multivariate models, a significant inverse association between SHBG and HbA1c persisted, as well as a significant positive association between FAI and HbA1c.

Conclusions

Androgenicity, as measured by low SHBG and high FAI, is associated with glycemia, and thereby may contribute to CVD risk in postmenopausal women.

Purpose

Overweight and obese women with breast cancer have poorer survival compared with thinner women. One possible mechanism is that breast cancer survivors with higher degrees of adiposity have higher concentrations of tumor-promoting hormones. This study examined the association between adiposity and concentrations of estrogens, androgens, and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in a population-based sample of postmenopausal women with breast cancer.

Methods

We studied the associations between body mass index (BMI), body fat mass and percent body fat measured by DXA scan, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip circumference ratio with concentrations of estrone, estradiol, testosterone, SHBG, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), free estradiol, and free testosterone in 505 Western Washington and New Mexico postmenopausal women with incident Stage 0-IIIa breast cancer. Blood and adiposity measurements were done between 4–12 months post-diagnosis.

Results

Obese women (BMI ≥ 30) had 35% higher concentrations of estrone and 130% higher concentrations of estradiol, compared with lighter women (BMI < 22.0) (p trend, 0.005 and 0.002, respectively). Similar associations were observed for body fat mass, percent body fat and waist circumference. Testosterone concentrations also increased with increasing levels of adiposity (p trend, 0.0001). Concentrations of free estradiol and free testosterone were doubled to tripled in overweight and obese women compared with lighter-weight women (p trend=0.0001).

Conclusions

These data provide information about potential hormonal explanations for the association between adiposity and breast cancer prognosis. These sex hormones may be useful biomarkers for weight loss intervention studies in women with breast cancer.

OBJECTIVE

There is a high prevalence of hypogonadism in men with type 2 diabetes. This will lead to an increase in assessments of hypogonadism. Statins could potentially decrease testosterone levels by reducing the availability of cholesterol for androgen synthesis. We compared testosterone levels and hypogonadal symptoms with statin use in a cross-sectional study of 355 men with type 2 diabetes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Total testosterone, sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG), and estradiol were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Bioavailable testosterone was measured by the modified ammonium sulfate precipitation method. Free testosterone was calculated using Vermeulen's formula. Symptoms of hypogonadism were assessed using the Androgen Deficiency in the Aging Male questionnaire.

RESULTS

Statins were associated with lower total testosterone (11.9 vs. 13.4 nmol/l, P = 0.006) and a trend toward lower SHBG (29.4 vs. 35.3 nmol/l, P = 0.034) compared with no treatment. Bioavailable testosterone, free testosterone, estradiol, and hypogonadal symptoms were not affected. Subanalysis showed that atorvastatin was associated with reduced total testosterone (11.4 vs. 13.4 nmol/l, P = 0.006) and a trend toward reduced SHBG (27.6 vs. 35.3 nmol/l, P = 0.022) compared with no treatment, and there was an apparent dose-response effect with the lowest levels of total testosterone seen in men treated with ≥20 mg atorvastatin (9.6 nmol/l, P = 0.017). Simvastatin use was not associated with significant reductions in testosterone or SHBG levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessing androgen status using total testosterone in men with type 2 diabetes treated with statins, particularly atorvastatin, may potentially lead to diagnostic error. Levels of bioavailable testosterone or free testosterone are recommended for the assessment of hypogonadism in this group if total testosterone levels are borderline.

Objective

To measure the association between alcohol intake and eleven hormones and peptides in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors and to evaluate whether this association differs by tamoxifen use.

Methods

Self-reported alcohol intake was assessed via food frequency questionnaire on average 30 months post breast cancer diagnosis in 490 postmenopausal women from three western states. Concurrently, a fasting blood sample was obtained for assay of estrone, estradiol, free estradiol, testosterone, free testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), leptin, C-peptide, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1), and IGF-binding protein-3. Adjusted means of these hormones and peptides were calculated for categories of alcohol intake, overall and stratified by tamoxifen use.

Results

The association between alcohol intake and serum hormone and peptide levels differed by tamoxifen use. We found statistically significant inverse associations between alcohol intake and both leptin and SHBG values, but only among tamoxifen users. In women not using tamoxifen we found a positive association between alcohol intake and DHEAS, but no association in tamoxifen users.

Conclusion

Tamoxifen may modify the association between alcohol intake and serum hormones and peptides. The significant associations found for DHEAS and SHBG are in a direction considered unfavorable for breast cancer prognosis. Postmenopausal breast cancer survivors may benefit from decreasing their alcohol intake.

Background

Estrogen activity plays a critical role in bone homeostasis. The serum levels of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) influence free estrogen levels and activity on target tissues. The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of common polymorphisms of the SHBG gene on serum SHBG, bone mineral density (BMD), and osteoporotic fractures.

Methods

Four biallelic polymorphisms of the SHBG gene were studied by means of Taqman assays in 753 postmenopausal women. BMD was measured by DXA and serum SHBG was measured by ELISA.

Results

Age, body weight, and two polymorphisms of the SHBG gene (rs6257 and rs1799941 [A/G]) were significantly associated with serum SHBG in unadjusted and age- and weight-adjusted models. Alleles at the rs1799941 locus showed the strongest association with serum SHBG (p = 0.0004). The difference in SHBG levels between women with AA and GG genotypes at the rs1799941 locus was 39%. There were no significant differences in BMD across SHBG genotypes. The genotypes showed similar frequency distributions in control women and women with vertebral or hip fractures.

Conclusion

Some common genetic variants of the SHBG gene, and particularly an A/G polymorphism situated in the 5' region, influence serum SHBG levels. However, a significant association with BMD or osteoporotic fractures has not been demonstrated.

Background

Testosterone is essential for the regulation of erectile physiology, but the relationship between low testosterone and erectile dysfunction (ED) has not been firmly established.

Purpose

To examine the association between serum total, free and bio-available testosterone and ED in a population-based sample.

Methods

A consecutive series of 1776 men aged 20–77 participated in the routine physical examination from September 2009 to December 2009 in Guangxi, China. ED was assessed using the five-item International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF-5) questionnaire. Total testosterone (TT), sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and other biochemical profiles were measured. Free testosterone (FT) and bio-available testosterone (BT) were calculated based on Vermeulen’s formula. Data were collected with regard to smoking, alcoholic drinking, physical activity and metabolic syndrome.

Results

The prevalence of ED (IIEF-5<22) was 47.6%. Men with ED were significantly older, and more prone to smoke cigarettes (≥20 cigarettes/day) or drink alcohol (≥3 drinks/week), and more likely to have elevated blood pressure (P = 0.036) or hyperglycemia (P<0.001) compared with those without ED. The significant increase in SHBG with age was parallel to its increase with increasing severity of ED (P<0.001). The obscure increase in TT across the ED status was detected without significance (P = 0.418), but TT was positively associated with ED after adjustment for age [odds ratio (OR)  = 1.02, 95% CI (confidence internal): 1.00–1.04]. FT and BT were inversely associated with ED (OR = 0.14, 95%CI: 0.06–0.33; OR = 0.92 (95%CI: 0.89–0.96, respectively) in the univariate analysis, and this inverse association appeared to be independent of smoking status, alcoholic drinking, physical activity, hyper-triglyceridemia and hyperglycemia.

Conclusions

FT and BT are inversely related to worsening ED, whereas the positive association between TT and ED is most likely due to the increase in SHBG.

Objective

We tested the hypothesis that increasing DHEAS levels is associated with improved insulin resistance in patients with PCOS.

Design

Cross-sectional cohort analysis.

Setting

Academic medical center.

Patients

352 women with PCOS.

Interventions

Patients presenting for evaluation of sumptoms related to androgen excess were evaluated physically and biochemically through laboratory analysis.

Main Outcome Measures

Circulating DHEAS, total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), and 17-hydroxyprogesterone (HP) levels, and calculated homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR).

Results

Bivariate analysis indicated that all parameters were associated with HOMA-IR, except HP and age, and confirmed a negative correlation between DHEAS and HOMA-IR. Multivariate analysis indicated that increases in DHEAS, SHBG, HP, and age were associated with decreasing HOMA-IR, while increases in FT, BMI, and WHR were associated with increasing HOMA-IR. In decreasing order of importance, the following variables predicted insulin resistance: Body mass index (BMI) > waist-hip ratio (WHR) > age > DHEAS > FT > SHBG > HP.

Conclusions

DHEAS is negatively correlated to insulin resistance in PCOS, and in our model ranked just behind other well-established predictors including BMI, WHR, and age. Whether this is due to a direct beneficial effect on insulin action by adrenal androgens such as DHEA, or whether DHEAS simply reflects the circulating levels of hyperinsulinemia, remains to be determined.

Background

Conflicting findings exist regarding the associations of sex hormones with subclinical atherosclerosis.

Methods

This is a substudy from MESA of 881 postmenopausal women and 978 men who had both abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) quantified by computed tomography and sex hormone levels assessed [Testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)]. We examined the association of sex hormones with presence and extent of AAC.

Results

For women, SHBG was inversely associated with both AAC presence [OR=0.62, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.91 for 1 unit greater log(SHBG) level] and extent [0.29 lower log(AAC) for 1 unit greater log(SHBG) level, β= −0.29 (95% CI −0.57 to −0.006)] adjusting for age, race, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, BMI, physical activity, and other sex hormones. After further adjustment for total and HDL-cholesterol, SHBG was not associated with ACC presence or extent. In men, there was no association between SHBG and AAC. In both men and women, neither T, E2, nor DHEA was associated with AAC presence or extent.

Conclusion

After adjustment for non-lipid cardiovascular risk factors, SHBG levels are inversely associated with both the presence and severity of AAC in women but not in men, which may be accounted for by HDL.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have successfully identified common genetic variants that contribute to breast cancer risk. Discovering additional variants has become difficult, as power to detect variants of weaker effect with present sample sizes is limited. An alternative approach is to look for variants associated with quantitative traits that in turn affect disease risk. As exposure to high circulating estradiol and testosterone, and low sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels is implicated in breast cancer etiology, we conducted GWAS analyses of plasma estradiol, testosterone, and SHBG to identify new susceptibility alleles. Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) data from the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS), and Sisters in Breast Cancer Screening data were used to carry out primary meta-analyses among ∼1600 postmenopausal women who were not taking postmenopausal hormones at blood draw. We observed a genome-wide significant association between SHBG levels and rs727428 (joint β = -0.126; joint P = 2.09×10–16), downstream of the SHBG gene. No genome-wide significant associations were observed with estradiol or testosterone levels. Among variants that were suggestively associated with estradiol (P<10–5), several were located at the CYP19A1 gene locus. Overall results were similar in secondary meta-analyses that included ∼900 NHS current postmenopausal hormone users. No variant associated with estradiol, testosterone, or SHBG at P<10–5 was associated with postmenopausal breast cancer risk among CGEMS participants. Our results suggest that the small magnitude of difference in hormone levels associated with common genetic variants is likely insufficient to detectably contribute to breast cancer risk.

We examined cross-sectional associations between sex hormones and carotid artery intimal-medial thickness (cIMT) and coronary artery calcium in women in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis.

Serum testosterone, estradiol, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), and dehydroepiandrosterone levels were measured in 1,947 postmenopausal women aged 45-84 years (30% White, 14% Chinese-American, 31% Black, and 25% Hispanic) and not on hormone therapy. Using multiple linear regression we evaluated associations between log(sex hormone) levels and log(cIMT) adjusted for age, ethnicity, body mass index (BMI) and cardiac risk factors. Associations between sex hormone levels and the presence and extent of coronary calcium were evaluated.

Total and bioavailable testosterone were positively associated with common cIMT independent of age, BMI, hypertension, smoking, HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and insulin sensitivity (p=0.009 and p=0.002 respectively). SHBG was negatively associated with common cIMT (p=0.001) but further adjustment for BMI, cardiovascular risk factors, and LDL- and HDL-cholesterol removed significance. Estradiol and dehydroepiandrosterone were not associated with common cIMT. Sex hormones were not associated with presence of coronary calcium. Among women with measurable coronary calcium, higher SHBG (p=0.012) and lower bioavailable testosterone (p=0.007) were associated with greater coronary calcium score. No heterogeneity by ethnicity was found. In postmenopausal women, testosterone is independently associated with greater common cIMT. SHBG is negatively associated and this may be mediated by LDL- and HDL-cholesterol. In contrast, SHBG and testosterone were associated with extent of coronary calcium but in the opposite direction compared to carotid intimal-medial thickness. These differences warrant further evaluation.

Objectives

To investigate the relationship between endogenous androgens and body fat distribution in early and late postmenopausal women.

Materials and Methods

We enrolled postmenopausal women consisting of an early group (≤5 years since menopause, n = 105) and a late group (≥10 years since menopause, n = 107). Each group was subdivided into normal weight (BMI <24 kg/m2) group, overweight and obese (BMI ≥24 kg/m2) group. Fasting total testosterone (T), dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels were measured. Body fat distribution was evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA).

Results

Late postmenopausal women had a higher proportion of body fat than early postmenopausal women. The body fat of the overweight and obese women had a greater tendency to accumulate in the abdomen compared with the normal weight women both in early and late postmenopausal groups. The overweight and obese women had a higher free testosterone (FT) than the normal weight women in early postmenopausal women (P<0.05). In late postmenopausal women, the overweight and obese women had higher DHEA-S levels than normal weight women (P<0.05). No direct relationship was observed between the T levels and body fat distribution both in early and late postmenopausal groups (P>0.05).The FT in early postmenopausal women and the DHEA-S levels in late postmenopausal women correlated positively with the trunk/leg fat ratio (T/L) and the proportion of android fat whereas correlated negatively with the proportion of gynoid fat in the partial correlation and multiple linear regression analyses (all P<0.05).

Conclusions

Serum T levels do not correlate directly with body fat distribution, the FT in early postmenopausal women and DHEA-S levels in late postmenopausal women correlate positively with abdominal fat accumulation.

To examine 1) the relationships between endogenous androgens and bone mineral density (BMD), 2) the relationships between sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and BMD, and 3) the associations of endogenous androgens and SHBG with biochemical markers of bone turnover, a cross-sectional study was carried out in 88 healthy pre-, peri-, and postmenopausal women aged 35 to 74. Measurements of BMDs at the ultradistal radius and ulna, and the distal radius (using DEXA), estrogens, androgens, deoxypyridinoline (D-Pyr) and intact bone gla protein (I-BGP) were performed. In the multivariate regression models testosterone (T) was positively correlated with BMD at the ultradistal radius and ulna in perimenopausal women, and was positively correlated with BMD at the ultradistal radius and ulna, and the distal radius in postmenopausal women. T was positively associated with I-BGP in premenopausal women (r = 0.65, p < 0.01), and negatively associated with D-Pyr in pre- (r = -0.53, p < 0.05) and postmenopausal women (r = -0.49, p < 0.001). On the other hand, SHBG was negatively correlated with BMD at die ultradistal radius and ulna, and die distal radius in pre- and postmenopausal women in the models. SHBG was positively related to D-Pyr in pre(r = 0.57, p < 0.05) and postmenopausal women (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), and negatively related to I-BGP in postmenopausal women (r = -0.38, p < 0.01). These findings suggest that endogenous androgens may exert positive influences on BMD, and that SHBG may have negative effects on BMD.

Background

Endogenous sex hormone levels are associated with risks of breast cancer overall and estrogen receptor (ER)–positive breast tumors; however, their associations with ER-negative tumors remain unclear.

Methods

In a case–cohort study within the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study among postmenopausal women aged 50–79 years, we examined associations between endogenous testosterone and estradiol levels and the risks of ER-negative and ER-positive breast cancers. Serum levels of bioavailable testosterone and estradiol were assessed at the baseline visit in 317 invasive breast cancer case subjects and in a subcohort of 594 women. Bioavailable sex hormone levels were calculated using the total hormone level and the sex hormone–binding globulin concentration (measured by radioimmunoassays and a chemiluminescent immunoassay, respectively). Cox proportional hazards regression was used for statistical analysis. All statistical tests were two-sided.

Result

The unadjusted absolute rates of ER-negative breast cancer for testosterone quartiles 1–4 were 0.34, 0.20, 0.23, and 0.21 per 10 000 person-years, respectively. Compared with women in the lowest quartile of testosterone level, those in quartile 2 had a 56% lower risk of ER-negative cancer (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.44, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.23 to 0.85), those in quartile 3 had a 45% lower risk (HR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.30 to 1.01), and those in quartile 4 had a 49% lower risk (HR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.28 to 0.94), independent of other risk factors. Estradiol level was not associated with ER-negative breast cancer. ER-positive breast cancer risk increased with higher testosterone levels (Ptrend = .04), but this trend was not statistically significant after adjustment for estradiol (Ptrend = .15). ER-positive cancer risk was approximately twofold higher in women with estradiol levels in quartiles 2–4 compared with women in quartile 1, independent of risk factors.

Conclusion

Higher serum levels of bioavailable testosterone are associated with lower risks of ER-negative breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

Testosterone concentrations in men are associated with cardiovascular morbidity, osteoporosis, and mortality and are affected by age, smoking, and obesity. Because of serum testosterone's high heritability, we performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association data in 8,938 men from seven cohorts and followed up the genome-wide significant findings in one in silico (n = 871) and two de novo replication cohorts (n = 4,620) to identify genetic loci significantly associated with serum testosterone concentration in men. All these loci were also associated with low serum testosterone concentration defined as <300 ng/dl. Two single-nucleotide polymorphisms at the sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) locus (17p13-p12) were identified as independently associated with serum testosterone concentration (rs12150660, p = 1.2×10−41 and rs6258, p = 2.3×10−22). Subjects with ≥3 risk alleles of these variants had 6.5-fold higher risk of having low serum testosterone than subjects with no risk allele. The rs5934505 polymorphism near FAM9B on the X chromosome was also associated with testosterone concentrations (p = 5.6×10−16). The rs6258 polymorphism in exon 4 of SHBG affected SHBG's affinity for binding testosterone and the measured free testosterone fraction (p<0.01). Genetic variants in the SHBG locus and on the X chromosome are associated with a substantial variation in testosterone concentrations and increased risk of low testosterone. rs6258 is the first reported SHBG polymorphism, which affects testosterone binding to SHBG and the free testosterone fraction and could therefore influence the calculation of free testosterone using law-of-mass-action equation.

Author Summary

Testosterone is the most important testicular androgen in men. Low serum testosterone concentrations are associated with cardiovascular morbidity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and increased mortality risk. Thus, there is growing evidence that serum testosterone is a valuable biomarker of men's overall health status. Studies in male twins indicate that there is a strong heritability of serum testosterone. Here we perform a large-scale genome-wide association study to examine the effects of common genetic variants on serum testosterone concentrations. By examining 14,429 men, we show that genetic variants in the sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) locus and on the X chromosome are associated with a substantial variation in serum testosterone concentrations and increased risk of low testosterone. The reported associations may now be used in order to better understand the functional background of recently identified disease associations related to low testosterone. Importantly, we identified the first known genetic variant, which affects SHBG's affinity for binding testosterone and the free testosterone fraction and could therefore influence the calculation of free testosterone. This finding suggests that individual-based SHBG-testosterone affinity constants are required depending on the genotype of this single-nucleotide polymorphism.

The access of testosterone and estradiol to target tissues is regulated by sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG) in human blood. Serum SHBG levels are low in patients with hyperandrogenism, especially in association with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and in individuals at risk for diabetes and heart disease. Here, we identify SHBG coding region variations from a compound heterozygous patient who presented with severe hyperandrogenism during pregnancy. Serum SHBG levels in this patient measured 2 years after her pregnancy were exceptionally low, and her non–protein-bound testosterone concentrations greatly exceeded the normal reference range. A single-nucleotide polymorphism within the proband’s maternally derived SHBG allele encodes a missense mutation, P156L, which allows for normal steroid ligand binding but causes abnormal glycosylation and inefficient secretion of SHBG. This polymorphism was identified in four other patients with either PCOS, ioiopathic hirsutism, or ovarian failure. The proband’s paternal SHBG allele carries a single-nucleotide deletion within exon 8, producing a reading-frame shift within the codon for E326 and a premature termination codon. CHO cells transfected with a SHBG cDNA carrying this mutation fail to secrete the predicted truncated form of SHBG. To our knowledge, these are the first examples of human SHBG variants linked to hyperandrogenism and ovarian dysfunction.

Background

There have been few studies examining the associations between menstrual irregularity, androgens and bone mass in population-based samples of premenopausal women. This study aimed to describe the associations between menstrual pattern, testosterone, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and bone mass in a population-based sample of premenopausal women.

Methods

Cross-sectional study (N = 382, mean age 31.5 years). Menstrual pattern was assessed by questionnaire, bone mass measured by quantitative ultrasound (QUS) and androgen status was assessed by levels of serum testosterone, SHBG and the free androgen index (FAI).

Results

Women with irregular cycles (n = 41, 11%) had higher free androgen index (FAI, P = 0.01) and higher QUS measurements including speed of sound (SOS, 1%, P < 0.05), quantitative ultrasound index (QUI, 7%, p < 0.05), and broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA, 7%, p = 0.10). These associations persisted after adjustment for age and body mass index (BMI). After further adjustment for hormonal factors (either testosterone, SHBG or FAI), the strength of the associations was moderately attenuated, however, women with irregular cycles still had a 6% increase in mean QUS. Total testosterone, FAI and SHBG were also associated with QUS measures (testosterone and FAI, r +0.11 to +0.21, all p < 0.05; SHBG r -0.14 to -0.16, all p < 0.05) and the associations remained significant after adjustment.

Conclusion

Irregular menstrual cycles were associated with higher bone mass in this population-based sample of premenopausal women suggesting menstrual disturbance should continue to be evaluated but may be less harmful for bone mass. The association between menstrual irregularity and bone mass was partially mediated by markers of androgen status especially free testosterone.

Purpose

We examined how an aerobic exercise intervention influenced circulating estradiol, estrone, sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG), androstenedione, and testosterone levels, which may be involved in the association between physical activity and breast cancer risk.

Methods

A two-center, two-arm randomized controlled trial of exercise was conducted in 320 postmenopausal, sedentary women age 50 to 74 years. Participants were randomly assigned to a 1-year aerobic exercise intervention of 225 min/wk (n = 160) or to a control group who maintained their usual level of activity (n = 160). Baseline, 6-month, and 12-month assessments of estrone, estradiol, androstenedione, and testosterone were quantified by radioimmunoassay after extraction, and SHBG was quantified by an immunometric assay. Intent-to-treat analyses were performed using linear mixed models.

Results

Blood data were available on 309 women (96.6%) at 12 months. Women in the intervention group exercised an average of 3.6 d/wk for 178 min/wk. At 12 months, statistically significant reductions in estradiol (treatment effect ratio [TER] = 0.93; 95% CI, 0.88 to 0.98) and free estradiol (TER = 0.91; 95% CI, 0.87 to 0.96) and increases in SHBG (TER = 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.07) were observed in the exercise group compared with the control group. No significant differences in estrone, androstenedione, and testosterone levels were observed between exercisers and controls at 12 months.

Conclusion

This trial found that previously sedentary postmenopausal women can adhere to a moderate- to vigorous-intensity exercise program that results in changes in estradiol and SHBG concentrations that are consistent with a lower risk for postmenopausal breast cancer.

Obesity has become a major health problem. Testosterone plays a significant role in obesity, glucose homeostasis, and lipid metabolism. The metabolic syndrome is a clustering of risk factors predisposing to diabetes mellitus type 2, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The main components of the syndrome are visceral obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, raised blood pressure and dyslipidemia (elevated triglycerides, low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol), and a proinflammatory and thrombogenic state. Cross-sectional epidemiological studies have reported a direct correlation between plasma testosterone and insulin sensitivity, and low testosterone levels are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, dramatically illustrated by androgen deprivation in men with prostate carcinoma. Lower total testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) predict a higher incidence of the metabolic syndrome. Administration of testosterone to hypogonadal men reverses part of the unfavorable risk profile for the development of diabetes and atherosclerosis.

Background

In women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), despite a high prevalence of insulin resistance, hyperandrogenemia, and disturbances in the secretion of gonadotrophin, the principal causes of biochemical abnormalities and the best endocrine markers for PCOS have not been fully identified.

Subjects and methods

Serum levels of insulin, glucose, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), total testosterone, estrogen, sex hormone-binding capacity (SHBG), and other related indices such as homeostasis model assessment, insulin glucose ratios, LH/FSH ratios, and the free androgen index (FAI) were determined and compared in women with PCOS (n = 50) and women without PCOS (n = 50).

Results

In multivariate logistic regression analyses, among all insulin resistance indices, only hyperinsulinemia (odds ratio [OR] = 2.6; confidence interval [CI]: 1.3–5.2; P = 0.008) was significantly and independently associated with PCOS when adjusted for body mass index (BMI), hyperandrogenemia, and LH/FSH ratios. The LH/FSH ratio (OR = 5.4; CI: 1.2–23.0, P = 0.03) was the only marker among those indices for inappropriate gonadotrophin secretion that significantly and independently associated with PCOS when adjusted for BMI and hyperinsulinemia. Among those indices for hyperandrogenemia, FAI (OR = 1.1; CI: 1.0–2.7; P = 0.02) and SHBG (OR = 1.2; CI: 1.2–3.4; P = 0.03) were significantly and independently associated with PCOS when adjusted for BMI and hyperinsulinemia. In addition, receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that the best predictive markers for PCOS were insulin (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.944; CI: 0.887–0.989), FAI (AUC = 0.932; CI: 0.895–0.993), SHBG (AUC = 0.924; CI: 0.87–0.978), and LH/FSH ratios (AUC = 0.906; CI: 0.821–0.965).

Conclusion

For insulin and LH/FSH ratios, FAI, and SHBG seemed the best predictors and markers for insulin resistance, inappropriate gonadotrophin secretion, and hyperandrogenemia, respectively, with high sensitivity and specificity for identifying Bahraini women with and without PCOS.

Objectives

To assess the relationship between sex hormones and natriuretic peptide levels in community-based adults

Background

Women have higher circulating natriuretic peptide concentrations than men, but the mechanisms for these sex-related differences and the impact of hormone therapy are unclear. Experimental studies suggest that androgens may suppress natriuretic peptide secretion.

Methods

We measured plasma N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), total testosterone, and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in 4,056 men and women (mean age 40±9 years) from the Framingham Heart Study Third Generation cohort. Sex/hormone status was grouped as: 1) men, 2) postmenopausal women not receiving hormone replacement therapy, 3) premenopausal women not receiving hormonal contraceptives, 4) postmenopausal women receiving hormone replacement therapy and 5) premenopausal women receiving hormonal contraceptives.

Results

Circulating NT-proBNP was associated with sex/hormone status (overall P<0.0001). Men had lower NT-proBNP than women of all menopause or hormone groups, and women receiving hormonal contraceptives had higher NT-proBNP than women who were not receiving hormone therapy (all P<0.0001). These relationships remained significant after adjusting for age, body mass index, and cardiovascular risk factors. Across sex/hormone status groups, FT decreased and SHBG increased in tandem with increasing NT-proBNP. In sex-specific analyses, NT-proBNP decreased across increasing quartiles of free testosterone in men (P for trend<0.01) and in women (P for trend<0.0001). Adjustment for FT markedly attenuated the association between sex/hormone status and NT-proBNP concentrations.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that lower circulating androgens and the potentiating effect of exogenous female hormone therapy contribute to the higher circulating NT-proBNP concentrations in women.

The association between physiologic levels of sex hormones and QT-interval duration in humans was evaluated using data from 727 men enrolled in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and 2,942 men and 1,885 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Testosterone, estradiol, and sex hormone-binding globulin levels were measured in serum and free testosterone was calculated from those values. QT interval was measured using a standard 12-lead electrocardiogram. In men from the Third National Health and Nutrition Survey, the multivariate adjusted differences in average QT-interval duration comparing the highest quartiles with the lowest quartiles of total testosterone and free testosterone were −8.5 ms (95% confidence interval (CI): −15.5, −1.4) and −8.0 ms (95% CI: −13.2, −2.8), respectively. The corresponding differences were −1.8 ms (95% CI: −3.8, −0.2), and −4.7 ms (95% CI: −6.7, −2.6), respectively, in men from MESA and −0.6 ms (95% CI: −3.0, 1.8) and 0.8 ms (95% CI: −1.6, 3.3), respectively, in postmenopausal women from MESA. Estradiol levels were not associated with QT-interval duration in men, but there was a marginally significant positive association in postmenopausal women. The findings suggest that testosterone levels may explain differences in QT-interval duration between men and women and could be a contributor to population variability in QT-interval duration among men.