Related Articles

Background

General Practitioners spend a disproportionate amount of time on frequent attenders. So far, trials on the effect of interventions on frequent attenders have shown negative results. However, these trials were conducted in short-term frequent attenders. It would be more reasonable to target intervention at persistent frequent attenders. Typical characteristics of persistent frequent attenders, as opposed to 1-year frequent attenders and non-frequent attenders, may generate hypotheses regarding modifiable factors on which new randomized trials may be designed.

Methods

We used the data of all 28,860 adult patients from 5 primary healthcare centers. Frequent attenders were patients whose attendance rate ranked in the (age and sex adjusted) top 10 percent during 1 year (1-year frequent attenders) or 3 years (persistent frequent attenders). All other patients on the register over the 3-year period were referred to as non-frequent attenders. The lists of medical problems coded by the GP using the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) were used to assess morbidity.

First, we determined which proportion of 1-year frequent attenders was still a frequent attender during the next two consecutive years and calculated the GPs' workload for these patients. Second, we compared morbidity and number of prescriptions for non-frequent attenders, 1-year frequent attenders and persistent frequent attenders.

Results

Of all 1-year frequent attenders, 15.4% became a persistent frequent attender equal to 1.6% of all patients. The 1-year frequent attenders (3,045; 10.6%) were responsible for 39% of the face-to-face consultations; the 470 patients who would become persistent frequent attenders (1.6%) were responsible for 8% of all consultations in 2003. Persistent frequent attenders presented more social problems, more psychiatric problems and medically unexplained physical symptoms, but also more chronic somatic diseases (especially diabetes). They received more prescriptions for psychotropic medication.

Conclusion

One out of every seven 1-year-frequent attenders (15.4%) becomes a persistent frequent attender. Compared with non-frequent attenders, and 1-year frequent attenders, persistent frequent attenders consume more health care and are diagnosed not only with more somatic diseases but especially more social problems, psychiatric problems and medically unexplained physical symptoms.

Background

Dental caries is a persistent public health problem with little change in the prevalence in young children over the last 20 years. Once a child contracts the disease it has a significant impact on their quality of life. There is good evidence from Cochrane reviews including trials that fluoride varnish and regular use of fluoride toothpaste can prevent caries.

The Northern Ireland Caries Prevention in Practice Trial (NIC-PIP) trial will compare the costs and effects of a caries preventive package (fluoride varnish, toothpaste, toothbrush and standardised dental health education) with dental health education alone in young children.

Methods/Design

A randomised controlled trial on children initially aged 2 and 3 years old who are regular attenders at the primary dental care services in Northern Ireland. Children will be recruited and randomised in dental practices. Children will be randomised to the prevention package of both fluoride varnish (twice per year for three years), fluoride toothpaste (1,450 ppm F) (supplied twice per year), a toothbrush (supplied twice a year) or not; both test and control groups receive standardised dental health education delivered by the dentist twice per year. Randomisation will be conducted by the Belfast Trust Clinical Research Support Centre ([CRSC] a Clinical Trials Unit).

1200 participants will be recruited from approximately 40 dental practices. Children will be examined for caries by independent dental examiners at baseline and will be excluded if they have caries. The independent dental examiners will examine the children again at 3 years blinded to study group.

The primary end-point is whether the child develops caries (cavitation into dentine) or not over the three years. One secondary outcome is the number of carious surfaces in the primary dentition in children who experience caries. Other secondary outcomes are episodes of pain, extraction of primary teeth, other adverse events and costs which will be obtained from parental questionnaires.

Discussion

This is a pragmatic trial conducted in general dental practice. It tests a composite caries prevention intervention, which represents an evidence based approach advocated by current guidance from the English Department of Health which is feasible to deliver to all low risk (caries free) children in general dental practice. The trial will provide valuable information to policy makers and clinicians on the costs and effects of caries prevention delivered to young children in general dental practice.

Trial registration

EudraCT No: 2009 - 010725 - 39

ISRCTN: ISRCTN36180119

Ethics Reference No: 09/H1008/93:

Background

Abnormal health anxiety, also called hypochondriasis, has been successfully treated by cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) in patients recruited from primary care, but only one pilot trial has been carried out among those attending secondary medical clinics where health anxiety is likely to be more common and have a greater impact on services. The CHAMP study extends this work to examine both the clinical and cost effectiveness of CBT in this population.

Method/Design

The study is a randomized controlled trial with two parallel arms and equal randomization of 466 eligible patients (assuming a 20% drop-out) to an active treatment group of 5-10 sessions of cognitive behaviour therapy and to a control group. The aim at baseline, after completion of all assessments but before randomization, was to give a standard simple explanation of the nature of health anxiety for all participants. Subsequently the control group was to receive whatever care might usually be available in the clinics, which is normally a combination of clinical assessment, appropriate tests and reassurance. Those allocated to the active treatment group were planned to receive between 5 and 10 sessions of an adapted form of cognitive behaviour therapy based on the Salkovskis/Warwick model, in which a set of treatment strategies are chosen aimed at helping patients understand the factors that drive and maintain health anxiety. The therapy was planned to be given by graduate research workers, nurses or other health professionals trained for this intervention whom would also have their competence assessed independently during the course of treatment. The primary outcome is reduction in health anxiety symptoms after one year and the main secondary outcome is the cost of care after two years.

Discussion

This represents the first trial of adapted cognitive behaviour therapy in health anxiety that is large enough to test not only the clinical benefits of treatment but also whether the cost of treatment is offset by savings from reduced use of other health services in comparison to the control group.

Cognitive behaviour therapy for Health Anxiety in Medical Patients (CHAMP)

Trial registration

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN14565822

Background

The diversity of definitions of frequent attendance in the literature hampers comparison of their precision, validity, and associated factors.

Aim

To examine different definitions of frequent attendance in order to identify the sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with frequent attendance in primary care, according to each definition.

Design of study

One-phase cross-sectional study.

Setting

Seventy-seven primary care centres in Catalonia, Spain.

Method

A total of 3815 primary care patients were interviewed between October 2005 and March 2006. Three definitions of frequent attendance were tested: (1) frequent attenders as the top 25% and the top 10% consulting patients; (2) frequent attenders as the top 25% and the top 10% consulting patients stratified by age and sex; and (3) frequent attenders as the top 25% and the top 10% consulting patients stratified by the presence of physical/mental conditions (patients with only mental disorders, with only chronic physical conditions, with comorbid conditions, and with no condition). Multilevel logistic regressions were used.

Results

The following factors were systematically related to frequent attender status: being on sick leave, being born outside of Spain, reporting mental health problems as the main reason for consulting, and having arthritis/rheumatism, or bronchitis. Major depression was related to frequent attendance in two of the three definitions. The factor ‘GP’ was related to frequent attendance when the top decile cut-off point was used. The models with a 10% cut-off point were more discriminative than those with a 25% cut-off point: the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for models with a 25% cut-off and a 10% cut-off ranged between 0.71 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.70 to 0.73) and 0.75 (95% CI = 0.74 to 0.77) and between 0.79 (95% CI = 0.78 to 0.81) and 0.85 (95% CI = 0.83 to 0.86), respectively.

Conclusion

The way frequent attendance is defined is of crucial importance. It is recommended that a more discriminative definition of frequent attendance is used (the top 10%).

Factors affecting the attendance at primary health care clinics in Lagos were studied at Oguntolu Clinic and Randle Road Health Centre among 120 Nigerian children. The level of immunisation was a measure of the frequency (regularity) of attendance at the clinics. Certain socioeconomic, psychological, and demographic factors were the major factors affecting attendance. Among those fully immunised, the family sizes were low, the mothers and fathers were educated, the mothers were younger, and a higher proportion of the children were boys. The family health workers were responsible for earlier and regular attendance at the clinic. The perception of the severity of symptoms of disease was a major psychological factor affecting attendance. A predictive model for the identification of high need but low users and low need but high users is presented to facilitate the formulation of more realistic primary health care programme priorities and policies.

Background

Low back pain (LBP) is a major public health problem. Risk factors for the development and persistence of LBP include physical and psychological factors. However, most research activity has focused on physical solutions including manipulation, exercise training and activity promotion.

Methods/Design

This randomised controlled trial will establish the clinical and cost-effectiveness of a group programme, based on cognitive behavioural principles, for the management of sub-acute and chronic LBP in primary care. Our primary outcomes are disease specific measures of pain and function. Secondary outcomes include back beliefs, generic health related quality of life and resource use. All outcomes are measured over 12 months. Participants randomised to the intervention arm are invited to attend up to six weekly sessions each of 90 minutes; each group has 6–8 participants. A parallel qualitative study will aid the evaluation of the intervention.

Discussion

In this paper we describe the rationale and design of a randomised evaluation of a group based cognitive behavioural intervention for low back pain.

Background

Frequent attenders to GP clinics can place an unnecessary burden on primary care. Interventions to reduce frequent attendance have had mixed results.

Aim

To assess the effectiveness of a GP intervention to reduce frequent-attender consultations.

Design of study

Randomised controlled trial with frequent attenders divided into an intervention group and two control groups (one control group was seen by GPs also providing care to patients undergoing the intervention).

Setting

A health centre in southern Spain.

Method

Six GPs and 209 randomly-selected frequent attenders participated. Three GPs were randomly allocated to perform the new intervention: of the 137 frequent attenders registered with these three GPs, 66 were randomly allocated to receive the intervention (IG) and 71 to a usual care control group (CG2). The other three GPs offered usual care to the other 72 frequent attenders (CG1). The main outcome measure was the total number of consultations 1 year post-intervention. Baseline measurements were recorded of sociodemographic characteristics, provider–user interface, chronic illnesses, and psychosocial variables. GPs allocated to the new intervention received 15 hours' training which incorporated biopsychosocial, organisational, and relational approaches. After 1 year of follow-up frequent attenders were contacted. An intention-to-treat analysis was used.

Results

A multilevel model was built with three factors: time, patient, and doctor. After adjusting for covariates, the mean number of visits at 1 year in IG was 13.10 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 11.39 to 14.94); in the CG1 group was 19.37 (95% CI = 17.31 to 21.55); and in the CG2 group this was 16.72 (95% CI =14.84 to 18.72).

Conclusion

The new intervention with GPs resulted in a significant and relevant reduction in frequent-attender consultations. Although further trials are needed, this intervention is recommended to GPs interested in reducing consultations by their frequent attenders.

Executive Summary

In early August 2007, the Medical Advisory Secretariat began work on the Aging in the Community project, an evidence-based review of the literature surrounding healthy aging in the community. The Health System Strategy Division at the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care subsequently asked the secretariat to provide an evidentiary platform for the ministry’s newly released Aging at Home Strategy.

After a broad literature review and consultation with experts, the secretariat identified 4 key areas that strongly predict an elderly person’s transition from independent community living to a long-term care home. Evidence-based analyses have been prepared for each of these 4 areas: falls and fall-related injuries, urinary incontinence, dementia, and social isolation. For the first area, falls and fall-related injuries, an economic model is described in a separate report.

Please visit the Medical Advisory Secretariat Web site, http://www.health.gov.on.ca/english/providers/program/mas/mas_about.html, to review these titles within the Aging in the Community series.

Aging in the Community: Summary of Evidence-Based Analyses

Prevention of Falls and Fall-Related Injuries in Community-Dwelling Seniors: An Evidence-Based Analysis

Behavioural Interventions for Urinary Incontinence in Community-Dwelling Seniors: An Evidence-Based Analysis

Caregiver- and Patient-Directed Interventions for Dementia: An Evidence-Based Analysis

Social Isolation in Community-Dwelling Seniors: An Evidence-Based Analysis

The Falls/Fractures Economic Model in Ontario Residents Aged 65 Years and Over (FEMOR)

This report features the evidence-based analysis on caregiver- and patient-directed interventions for dementia and is broken down into 4 sections:

Introduction

Caregiver-Directed Interventions for Dementia

Patient-Directed Interventions for Dementia

Economic Analysis of Caregiver- and Patient-Directed Interventions for Dementia

Caregiver-Directed Interventions for Dementia

Objective

To identify interventions that may be effective in supporting the well-being of unpaid caregivers of seniors with dementia living in the community.

Clinical Need: Target Population and Condition

Dementia is a progressive and largely irreversible syndrome that is characterized by a loss of cognitive function severe enough to impact social or occupational functioning. The components of cognitive function affected include memory and learning, attention, concentration and orientation, problem-solving, calculation, language, and geographic orientation. Dementia was identified as one of the key predictors in a senior’s transition from independent community living to admission to a long-term care (LTC) home, in that approximately 90% of individuals diagnosed with dementia will be institutionalized before death. In addition, cognitive decline linked to dementia is one of the most commonly cited reasons for institutionalization.

Prevalence estimates of dementia in the Ontario population have largely been extrapolated from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging conducted in 1991. Based on these estimates, it is projected that there will be approximately 165,000 dementia cases in Ontario in the year 2008, and by 2010 the number of cases will increase by nearly 17% over 2005 levels. By 2020 the number of cases is expected to increase by nearly 55%, due to a rise in the number of people in the age categories with the highest prevalence (85+). With the increase in the aging population, dementia will continue to have a significant economic impact on the Canadian health care system. In 1991, the total costs associated with dementia in Canada were $3.9 billion (Cdn) with $2.18 billion coming from LTC.

Caregivers play a crucial role in the management of individuals with dementia because of the high level of dependency and morbidity associated with the condition. It has been documented that a greater demand is faced by dementia caregivers compared with caregivers of persons with other chronic diseases. The increased burden of caregiving contributes to a host of chronic health problems seen among many informal caregivers of persons with dementia. Much of this burden results from managing the behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD), which have been established as a predictor of institutionalization for elderly patients with dementia.

It is recognized that for some patients with dementia, an LTC facility can provide the most appropriate care; however, many patients move into LTC unnecessarily. For individuals with dementia to remain in the community longer, caregivers require many types of formal and informal support services to alleviate the stress of caregiving. These include both respite care and psychosocial interventions. Psychosocial interventions encompass a broad range of interventions such as psychoeducational interventions, counseling, supportive therapy, and behavioural interventions.

Assuming that 50% of persons with dementia live in the community, a conservative estimate of the number of informal caregivers in Ontario is 82,500. Accounting for the fact that 29% of people with dementia live alone, this leaves a remaining estimate of 58,575 Ontarians providing care for a person with dementia with whom they reside.

Description of Interventions

The 2 main categories of caregiver-directed interventions examined in this review are respite care and psychosocial interventions. Respite care is defined as a break or relief for the caregiver. In most cases, respite is provided in the home, through day programs, or at institutions (usually 30 days or less). Depending on a caregiver’s needs, respite services will vary in delivery and duration. Respite care is carried out by a variety of individuals, including paid staff, volunteers, family, or friends.

Psychosocial interventions encompass a broad range of interventions and have been classified in various ways in the literature. This review will examine educational, behavioural, dementia-specific, supportive, and coping interventions. The analysis focuses on behavioural interventions, that is, those designed to help the caregiver manage BPSD. As described earlier, BPSD are one of the most challenging aspects of caring for a senior with dementia, causing an increase in caregiver burden. The analysis also examines multicomponent interventions, which include at least 2 of the above-mentioned interventions.

Methods of Evidence-Based Analysis

A comprehensive search strategy was used to identify systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that examined the effectiveness of interventions for caregivers of dementia patients.

Questions

Section 2.1

Are respite care services effective in supporting the well-being of unpaid caregivers of seniors with dementia in the community?

Do respite care services impact on rates of institutionalization of these seniors?

Section 2.2

Which psychosocial interventions are effective in supporting the well-being of unpaid caregivers of seniors with dementia in the community?

Which interventions reduce the risk for institutionalization of seniors with dementia?

Outcomes of Interest

any quantitative measure of caregiver psychological health, including caregiver burden, depression, quality of life, well-being, strain, mastery (taking control of one’s situation), reactivity to behaviour problems, etc.;

rate of institutionalization; and

cost-effectiveness.

Assessment of Quality of Evidence

The quality of the evidence was assessed as High, Moderate, Low, or Very low according to the GRADE methodology and GRADE Working Group. As per GRADE the following definitions apply:

Summary of Findings

Conclusions in Table 1 are drawn from Sections 2.1 and 2.2 of the report.

Summary of Conclusions on Caregiver-Directed Interventions

There is limited evidence from RCTs that respite care is effective in improving outcomes for those caring for seniors with dementia.

There is considerable qualitative evidence of the perceived benefits of respite care.

Respite care is known as one of the key formal support services for alleviating caregiver burden in those caring for dementia patients.

Respite care services need to be tailored to individual caregiver needs as there are vast differences among caregivers and patients with dementia (severity, type of dementia, amount of informal/formal support available, housing situation, etc.)

There is moderate- to high-quality evidence that individual behavioural interventions (≥ 6 sessions), directed towards the caregiver (or combined with the patient) are effective in improving psychological health in dementia caregivers.

There is moderate- to high-quality evidence that multicomponent interventions improve caregiver psychosocial health and may affect rates of institutionalization of dementia patients.

RCT indicates randomized controlled trial.

Patient-Directed Interventions for Dementia

Objective

The section on patient-directed interventions for dementia is broken down into 4 subsections with the following questions:

3.1 Physical Exercise for Seniors with Dementia – Secondary Prevention

What is the effectiveness of physical exercise for the improvement or maintenance of basic activities of daily living (ADLs), such as eating, bathing, toileting, and functional ability, in seniors with mild to moderate dementia?

3.2 Nonpharmacologic and Nonexercise Interventions to Improve Cognitive Functioning in Seniors With Dementia – Secondary Prevention

What is the effectiveness of nonpharmacologic interventions to improve cognitive functioning in seniors with mild to moderate dementia?

3.3 Physical Exercise for Delaying the Onset of Dementia – Primary Prevention

Can exercise decrease the risk of subsequent cognitive decline/dementia?

3.4 Cognitive Interventions for Delaying the Onset of Dementia – Primary Prevention

Does cognitive training decrease the risk of cognitive impairment, deterioration in the performance of basic ADLs or instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs),1 or incidence of dementia in seniors with good cognitive and physical functioning?

Clinical Need: Target Population and Condition

Secondary Prevention2

Exercise

Physical deterioration is linked to dementia. This is thought to be due to reduced muscle mass leading to decreased activity levels and muscle atrophy, increasing the potential for unsafe mobility while performing basic ADLs such as eating, bathing, toileting, and functional ability.

Improved physical conditioning for seniors with dementia may extend their independent mobility and maintain performance of ADL.

Nonpharmacologic and Nonexercise Interventions

Cognitive impairments, including memory problems, are a defining feature of dementia. These impairments can lead to anxiety, depression, and withdrawal from activities. The impact of these cognitive problems on daily activities increases pressure on caregivers.

Cognitive interventions aim to improve these impairments in people with mild to moderate dementia.

Primary Prevention3

Exercise

Various vascular risk factors have been found to contribute to the development of dementia (e.g., hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, overweight).

Physical exercise is important in promoting overall and vascular health. However, it is unclear whether physical exercise can decrease the risk of cognitive decline/dementia.

Nonpharmacologic and Nonexercise Interventions

Having more years of education (i.e., a higher cognitive reserve) is associated with a lower prevalence of dementia in crossectional population-based studies and a lower incidence of dementia in cohorts followed longitudinally. However, it is unclear whether cognitive training can increase cognitive reserve or decrease the risk of cognitive impairment, prevent or delay deterioration in the performance of ADLs or IADLs or reduce the incidence of dementia.

Description of Interventions

Physical exercise and nonpharmacologic/nonexercise interventions (e.g., cognitive training) for the primary and secondary prevention of dementia are assessed in this review.

Evidence-Based Analysis Methods

A comprehensive search strategy was used to identify systematic reviews and RCTs that examined the effectiveness, safety and cost effectiveness of exercise and cognitive interventions for the primary and secondary prevention of dementia.

Questions

Section 3.1: What is the effectiveness of physical exercise for the improvement or maintenance of ADLs in seniors with mild to moderate dementia?

Section 3.2: What is the effectiveness of nonpharmacologic/nonexercise interventions to improve cognitive functioning in seniors with mild to moderate dementia?

Section 3.3: Can exercise decrease the risk of subsequent cognitive decline/dementia?

Section 3.4: Does cognitive training decrease the risk of cognitive impairment, prevent or delay deterioration in the performance of ADLs or IADLs, or reduce the incidence of dementia in seniors with good cognitive and physical functioning?

Assessment of Quality of Evidence

The quality of the evidence was assessed as High, Moderate, Low, or Very low according to the GRADE methodology. As per GRADE the following definitions apply:

Summary of Findings

Table 2 summarizes the conclusions from Sections 3.1 through 3.4.

Summary of Conclusions on Patient-Directed Interventions*

Previous systematic review indicated that “cognitive training” is not effective in patients with dementia.

A recent RCT suggests that CST (up to 7 weeks) is effective for improving cognitive function and quality of life in patients with dementia.

Regular leisure time physical activity in midlife is associated with a reduced risk of dementia in later life (mean follow-up 21 years).

Regular physical activity in seniors is associated with a reduced risk of cognitive decline (mean follow-up 2 years).

Regular physical activity in seniors is associated with a reduced risk of dementia (mean follow-up 6–7 years).

Evidence that cognitive training for specific functions (memory, reasoning, and speed of processing) produces improvements in these specific domains.

Limited inconclusive evidence that cognitive training can offset deterioration in the performance of self-reported IADL scores and performance assessments.

1° indicates primary; 2°, secondary; CST, cognitive stimulation therapy; IADL, instrumental activities of daily living; RCT, randomized controlled trial.

Benefit/Risk Analysis

As per the GRADE Working Group, the overall recommendations consider 4 main factors:

the trade-offs, taking into account the estimated size of the effect for the main outcome, the confidence limits around those estimates, and the relative value placed on the outcome;

the quality of the evidence;

translation of the evidence into practice in a specific setting, taking into consideration important factors that could be expected to modify the size of the expected effects such as proximity to a hospital or availability of necessary expertise; and

uncertainty about the baseline risk for the population of interest.

The GRADE Working Group also recommends that incremental costs of health care alternatives should be considered explicitly alongside the expected health benefits and harms. Recommendations rely on judgments about the value of the incremental health benefits in relation to the incremental costs. The last column in Table 3 reflects the overall trade-off between benefits and harms (adverse events) and incorporates any risk/uncertainty (cost-effectiveness).

Overall Summary Statement of the Benefit and Risk for Patient-Directed Interventions*

Economic Analysis

Budget Impact Analysis of Effective Interventions for Dementia

Caregiver-directed behavioural techniques and patient-directed exercise programs were found to be effective when assessing mild to moderate dementia outcomes in seniors living in the community. Therefore, an annual budget impact was calculated based on eligible seniors in the community with mild and moderate dementia and their respective caregivers who were willing to participate in interventional home sessions. Table 4 describes the annual budget impact for these interventions.

Annual Budget Impact (2008 Canadian Dollars)

Assumed 7% prevalence of dementia aged 65+ in Ontario.

Assumed 8 weekly sessions plus 4 monthly phone calls.

Assumed 12 weekly sessions plus biweekly sessions thereafter (total of 20).

Assumed 2 sessions per week for first 5 weeks. Assumed 90% of seniors in the community with dementia have mild to moderate disease. Assumed 4.5% of seniors 65+ are in long-term care, and the remainder are in the community. Assumed a rate of participation of 60% for both patients and caregivers and of 41% for patient-directed exercise. Assumed 100% compliance since intervention administered at the home. Cost for trained staff from Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care data source. Assumed cost of personal support worker to be equivalent to in-home support. Cost for recreation therapist from Alberta government Website.

Note: This budget impact analysis was calculated for the first year after introducing the interventions from the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care perspective using prevalence data only. Prevalence estimates are for seniors in the community with mild to moderate dementia and their respective caregivers who are willing to participate in an interventional session administered at the home setting. Incidence and mortality rates were not factored in. Current expenditures in the province are unknown and therefore were not included in the analysis. Numbers may change based on population trends, rate of intervention uptake, trends in current programs in place in the province, and assumptions on costs. The number of patients was based on patients likely to access these interventions in Ontario based on assumptions stated below from the literature. An expert panel confirmed resource consumption.

A sample of 1570 men and women aged 20-45 years registered with an inner-city Cardiff practice were offered the opportunity by their general practitioner to have a health check at the surgery. The demographic characteristics, attitudes, beliefs and preventive health behaviour and past contact with the practice were compared for a sample of 259 non-attenders and 216 attenders. The results showed that attenders were generally better educated, better motivated to look after their health, had fewer ties and commitments, performed more healthapproved practices, had had more recent contact with their own practice and accepted the legitimacy of a general practitioner's interest in his patients' lifestyle. Offering cohorts of patients additional screening services is unlikely to be efficient or effective since it is the low-risk people already known to the doctor who are most likely to attend. The onus lies on primary health care to provide services in a way which permits appropriate screening of the high-risk groups as they attend for other reasons.

Background

Somatoform disorders are characterized by the presence of multiple somatic symptoms without an organic cause that completely explains their symptoms.

These patients generate a high cost in health services. We aim to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of a cognitive-behaviour therapy (CBT) programme, administered in group and individual formats in primary care for patients who are diagnosed with abridged somatization disorder.

Method/design

Design: Multicentre, randomized, controlled trial involving 3 groups, one of which is the control group consisting of standardized recommended treatment for somatization disorder in primary care (Smith's norms) and the 2 others, the intervention groups, consisting of cognitive-behavioural therapy (10 sessions) administered in individual format (intervention group 1) or in group format (intervention group 2).

Setting: 29 primary care health centres in the province of Zaragoza and 3 primary care health centres in the province of Mallorca, Spain.

Sample: N = 204 patients, (68 in each of the three groups), aged 18–65 years, able to understand and read Spanish, who fulfil Escobar's criteria of Abridgged Somatization Disorder (SSI 4,6), stable with pharmacotherapy over the previous month, and who will remain stable for the next 3 months in the doctor's opinion, having signed informed consent.

Intervention: Control group: Standardized recommended treatment for somatization disorder in primary care (Smith's norms). Intervention group: 10 weekly sessions of CBT, following a protocol designed by Prof. Escobar's group at UMDNJ, USA. There are 2 different treatment conditions: individual and group format.

Measurements: Survey on the use of health services, number and severity of somatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, quality of life and clinical global impression. The interviewers will not know which group the patient belongs to (blind). The assessments will be carried out at baseline, post-treatment, 6 months and 12 post-treatment.

Main variables: Utilization of health services, number and severity of somatic symptoms.

Analysis: The analysis will be per intent to treat. We will use the general linear models of the SPSS v.15 statistical package, to analyse the effect of treatment on the result variable (utilization of health services, number and severity of somatic symptoms).

Discussion

It is necessary to develop more effective psychological treatments for somatoform disorders. This randomised clinical trial will determine whether cognitive behaviour therapy, both in group or in individual format, is effective for the treatment of these patients.

Trial registration

Current controlled trials ISRCTN69944771

Background

Large HIV care programs frequently subsidize antiretroviral (ARV) drugs and CD4 tests, but patients must often pay for other health-related drugs and services. We estimated the financial burden of health care for households with HIV-infected adults taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Côte d'Ivoire.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We conducted a cross-sectional survey. After obtaining informed consent, we interviewed HIV-infected adults taking ART who had consecutively attended one of 18 HIV care facilities in Abidjan. We collected information on socioeconomic and medical characteristics. The main economic indicators were household capacity-to-pay (overall expenses minus food expenses), and health care expenditures. The primary outcome was the percentage of households confronted with catastrophic health expenditures (health expenditures were defined as catastrophic if they were greater than or equal to 40% of the capacity-to-pay). We recruited 1,190 adults. Median CD4 count was 187/mm3, median time on ART was 14 months, and 72% of subjects were women. Mean household capacity-to-pay was $213.7/month, mean health expenditures were $24.3/month, and 12.3% of households faced catastrophic health expenditures. Of the health expenditures, 75.3% were for the study subject (ARV drugs and CD4 tests, 24.6%; morbidity events diagnosis and treatment, 50.1%; transportation to HIV care centres, 25.3%) and 24.7% were for other household members. When we stratified by most recent CD4 count, morbidity events related expenses were significantly lower when subjects had higher CD4 counts.

Conclusions/Significance

Many households in Côte d'Ivoire face catastrophic health expenditures that are not attributable to ARV drugs or routine follow-up tests. Innovative schemes should be developed to help HIV-infected patients on ART face the cost of morbidity events.

Background

Non-attendance rates in psychiatric outpatient clinics have been a topic of considerable interest. It is measured as an indicator of quality of service provision. Failed attendances add to the cost of care as well as having an adverse impact on patients leading to missing medications, delay in identifying relapses and increasing waiting list time. Recent trials have demonstrated that prompting letters sent to patients led to a decrease in non-attendance rates. We applied this evidence based practice in our community mental health setting to evaluate its impact.

Methods

Using a before and after study design, we sent prompting letters to all patients due to attend outpatient clinic appointments for a period of six months in 2007. Non-attendance rates were compared with the corresponding period in 2006. We also looked at trends of non-attendance prior to this intervention and compared results with other parts of our service where this intervention had not been applied.

Results

1433 prompting letters were sent out to all out-patient appointments made from June to November 2007. This resulted in an average non-attendance rate of 17% which was significantly less compared to 27% between June and November 2006 (RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.76, NNT 11). No downward trend in non-attendance rate was identified either prior to the intervention or when compared with similar teams across the city.

Conclusion

Prompt letters have been shown to reduce non-attendance rates in previous RCTs and systematic reviews. Our findings demonstrate a reduction in non-attendance rates with prompting letters even under non-trial conditions. Majority of the patients were constant during the two periods compared although there were some changes in medical personnel. This makes it difficult to attribute all the change, solely to the intervention alone. Perhaps our work shows that the results of pragmatic randomised trials are easily applicable and produce similar results in non-randomised settings. We found that prompting letters are a useful and easy to apply evidence based intervention to reduce non-attendance rates with a potential to achieve significant cost savings.

Background

Few patients who attend GP consultations frequently continue to do so long term. While transient frequent attendance may be readily explicable, persistent frequent attendance often is not. It increases GPs' workload while reducing work satisfaction. It is neither reasonable, nor efficient to target diagnostic assessment and intervention at transient frequent attenders.

Aim

To develop a prediction rule for selecting persistent frequent attenders, using readily available information from GPs' electronic medical records.

Design of study

A historic 3-year cohort study.

Method

Data of 28 860 adult patients from 2003 to 2005 were examined. Frequent attenders were patients whose attendance rate ranked in the (age- and sex-adjusted) top 10% during 1 year (1-year frequent attenders) or 3 years (persistent frequent attenders). Bootstrapped multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to determine which predictors contained information on persistent frequent attendance.

Results

Of 3045 1-year frequent attenders, 470 (15.4%) became persistent frequent attenders. The prediction rule could update this prior probability to 3.3% (lowest value) or 43.3% (highest value). However, the 10th and 90th centiles of the posterior probability distribution were 7.4% and 26.3% respectively, indicating that the model performs modestly. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.67 (95% confidence limits 0.64 and 0.69).

Conclusion

Among 1-year frequent attenders, six out of seven are transient frequent attenders. With the present indicators, the rule developed performs modestly in selecting those more likely to become persistent frequent attenders.

Summary

Objectives

To assess the prevalence and predictors of sexual risk behaviours among HIV-positive individuals in clinical care in Kumasi, Ghana.

Design

Cross-sectional survey of 267 (43 males and 224 females) HIV-positive individuals attending Kumasi South Regional Hospital.

Methods

An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to asses demographic and health characteristics, HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs and sexual risk behaviours.

Results

Forty-four percent of the sample reported having sex after testing positive for HIV. Of the 175 participants with regular sex partners, 24% had HIV-positive partners. Majority (67%) had HIV-negative partners (serodiscordant couples) or partners of unknown status. More than half (51%) of the study population with regular sex partners reported that they had unprotected anal or vaginal sex. Participants who scored < 50% on the HIV/AIDS knowledge scale were 90% less likely to have used condoms during their last sexual intercourse. Disclosure of HIV status was associated with protective patterns of condom use (OR=2.2; 95% CI: 1.3–12.9). Participants on ARV were 80% less likely to have used condoms during the last sexual intercourse (OR=0.2; 95% CI: 0.04–0.6).

Conclusion

The high rates of sexual risk behaviour among HIV-positive individuals in this sample place others at risk of HIV infection. It also places these HIV positive individuals at risk for infection with sexually transmitted infections and super-infection with other HIV strains. These findings highlight the need to integrate HIV prevention in routine medical care in Ghana.

Background

Internet administered cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is a promising new way to deliver psychological treatment, but its effectiveness in regular care settings and in relation to more traditional CBT group treatment has not yet been determined. The primary aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of Internet-and group administered CBT for panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) in a randomised trial within a regular psychiatric care setting. The second aim of the study was to establish the cost-effectiveness of these interventions.

Methods

Patients referred for treatment by their physician, or self-referred, were telephone-screened by a psychiatric nurse. Patients fulfilling screening criteria underwent an in-person structured clinical interview carried out by a psychiatrist. A total of 113 consecutive patients were then randomly assigned to 10 weeks of either guided Internet delivered CBT (n = 53) or group CBT (n = 60). After treatment, and at a 6-month follow-up, patients were again assessed by the psychiatrist, blind to treatment condition.

Results

Immediately after randomization 9 patients dropped out, leaving 104 patients who started treatment. Patients in both treatment conditions showed significant improvement on the main outcome measure, the Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS) after treatment. For the Internet treatment the within-group effect size (pre-post) on the PDSS was Cohen's d = 1.73, and for the group treatment it was d = 1.63. Between group effect sizes were low and treatment effects were maintained at 6-months follow-up. We found no statistically significant differences between the two treatment conditions using a mixed models approach to account for missing data. Group CBT utilised considerably more therapist time than did Internet CBT. Defining effect as proportion of PDSS responders, the cost-effectiveness analysis concerning therapist time showed that Internet treatment had superior cost-effectiveness ratios in relation to group treatment both at post-treatment and follow-up.

Conclusions

This study provides support for the effectiveness of Internet CBT in a psychiatric setting for patients with panic disorder, and suggests that it is equally effective as the more widely used group administered CBT in reducing panic-and agoraphobic symptoms, as well as being more cost effective with respect to therapist time.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00845260

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of evidence relating to the cost-effectiveness of alternative treatment responses to chronic fatigue. AIM: To compare the relative costs and outcomes of counselling versus cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) provided in primary care settings for the treatment of fatigue. DESIGN OF STUDY: A randomised controlled trial incorporating a cost-consequences analysis. SETTING: One hundred and twenty-nine patients from 10 general practices across London and the South Thames region who had experienced symptoms of fatigue for at least three months. METHOD: An economic analysis was performed to measure costs of therapy, other use of health services, informal care-giving, and lost employment. The principal outcome measure was the Fatigue Questionnaire; secondary measures were the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and a social adjustment scale. RESULTS: Although the mean cost of treatment was higher for the CBT group (164 Pounds, standard deviation = 67) than the counselling group (109 Pounds, SD = 49; 95% confidence interval = 35 to 76, P < 0.001), a comparison of change scores between baseline and six-month assessment revealed no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of aggregate health care costs, patient and family costs or incremental cost-effectiveness (cost per unit of improvement on the fatigue score). CONCLUSIONS: Counselling and CBT both led to improvements in fatigue and related symptoms, while slightly reducing informal care and lost productivity costs. Counselling represents a less costly (and more widely available) intervention but no overall cost-effectiveness advantage was found for either form of therapy.

Aim

To define predictive factors for frequent attenders among preschool children in primary health care and investigate the association between socioeconomic factors and medical factors, as well as the reasons for child’s appointment in the physician’s office.

Methods

This retrospective study was conducted in 7 primary health care offices (6 family physician practices and 1 pediatric practice) in Zagreb, Croatia. The study included 964 preschool children from 1-6 years who visited these practices during 2005. Children in the highest quartile of consultation frequency (n = 255) were defined as frequent attenders, while the children in the lowest quartile of consultation frequency (n = 302) represented the control group (non-frequent attenders). We collected data on consultation rate, socioeconomic factors, health care providers, prescriptions and referrals, symptoms, and diagnoses. Association of the parameters and the frequency of consultations was investigated by logistic regression analysis.

Results

Frequent attenders sought for consultations 10 times per year (median, range 4-26), and they had the following characteristics: had 2-3 years, attended day care center, were treated by a pediatrician, and received more prescriptions and referrals. Their major complaints were: cough, nasal discharge, rash, fever, difficult breathing, earache, digestive problems, throat soreness, and injuries. Logistic regression analysis showed significant association between frequent attendance and age of 2-3, the symptom of nasal discharge, and diagnoses of infectious and parasitic diseases, middle ear diseases, respiratory system diseases, and skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases.

Conclusion

Socioeconomic characteristics, symptoms, and diagnoses were important predictors for defining preschool frequent attenders in primary health care.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to examine risk factors that predict persistent healthcare frequent attendance among a frequent attender (FA) population.

Design

Prospective cohort study without intervention.

Setting

Primary healthcare centre in Tampere, Finland.

Subjects

A total of 85 primary healthcare working-age patients participated in the study. All participants were FAs in the first study year.

Main outcome measures

We identified two groups of patients: temporary FAs and persistent FAs. A patient was considered as a persistent FA if he or she visited the health centre at least eight times a year for at least three out of four follow-up years. Some 59 different variables were examined as potential risk factors for persistent FA. P-course, a web-based Na ï ve Bayesian classification tool, was used for the modelling of the data.

Results

In our model, the most influential predictive risk factors for persistent frequent attendance in an FA population were female gender, body mass index above 30, former frequent attendance, fear of death, alcohol abstinence, low patient satisfaction, and irritable bowel syndrome. New observations were high body mass index, alcohol abstinence, irritable bowel syndrome, low patient satisfaction, and fear of death.

Conclusions

In FA analyses, distinction between temporary and persistent frequent attendance should be made. Our Bayesian model could be used for identifying persistent FAs in uncertain situations. The model can quite easily be further developed as a practical decision support tool for general practitioners. However, before its use in practice, the external validity of the model will need to be defined.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of physician payment method on use of health care resources. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of patient health care data collected for 3 years (1994 to 1996) from the Vital Statistics Department of the British Columbia Ministry of Health. Billing numbers identified physician payment method. SETTING: Salaried and fee-for-service primary care practices in the Capital Region District of Victoria, BC. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 582 patients in their last year of life: 106 were attended by salaried family physicians at a community health clinic; 476 were attended by fee-for-service practitioners. Groups were comparable in age, sex, and geographical location. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number and cost of specialist and diagnostic services and medications, number of days in hospital (acute and extended care), and main causes of death. RESULTS: None of the dependent measures showed any statistically significant differences based on comparisons between many variables for patients in the two groups. Costs of pharmaceutical, specialist, and diagnostic services were not significantly different for the two groups. There were three main causes of death, according to codes on death certificates: heart disease, malignant neoplasms, and cerebrovascular disease. CONCLUSION: Whether physicians were paid by salary or fee-for-service had no empirical effect on health care resource use.

Objective:

Of the many forms of psychotherapy offered to treat depression in youth, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has been shown to be efficacious. Nonetheless, a high degree of apparent non-responsiveness, failure to remit post-treatment, and lack of long term benefit are all problematic. Given that regular participation is critical to treatment success, child and family predictors of attendance were researched.

Method:

Twenty-nine depressed Canadian youth (aged 10–17) participated in a youth only or youth plus parent CBT group. Child and parent predictors of attendance were examined.

Results:

Youth who were younger, less anxious (by maternal report), and had more formally educated parents attended CBT more consistently. Further, mothers who perceived their children’s depressive symptoms as more severe, whose children reported more depressive and anxious symptoms, and who reported more life stressors attended more parent sessions.

Conclusions:

This study identifies key factors influencing youth and parent attendance in group CBT for depressed youth. Addressing these factors at the outset of treatment may decrease attrition in this form of psychotherapy.

BACKGROUND: The demand for anticoagulation management is increasing. This has led to care being provided in non-hospital settings. While clinical studies have similarly demonstrated good clinical care in these settings, it is still unclear as to which alternative is the most efficient. AIM: To determine the costs borne by patients when attending an anticoagulation management clinic in either primary or secondary care and to use this information to consider the cost-effectiveness of anticoagulation management in primary and secondary care, both from the National Health Service and patient perspectives. DESIGN OF STUDY: Observational study comparing two cohorts of patients currently attending anticoagulation management clinics. SETTING: Four primary care clinics in Birmingham and one in Warwickshire, and the haematology clinics at the University of Birmingham Hospitals Trust and the City Hospital NHS Trust. METHOD: The survey of patients attending the clinics was used to ascertain patient costs. This information was then used in conjunction with the findings of a recent randomised controlled trial to establish cost-effectiveness. RESULTS: Patient costs were lower in primary care than in secondary care settings; the mean (standard deviation) costs per visit were Pound Sterling6.78 (Pound Sterling5.04) versus Pound Sterling14.58 (Pound Sterling9.08). While a previous cost-effectiveness analysis from a health sector perspective alone found a higher cost for primary care, the adoption of the societal perspective lead to a marked change in the result: a similar total cost per patient in both sectors. CONCLUSION: There are significantly higher costs borne by patients attending secondary care anticoagulation management clinics than similar patients attending primary care clinics. This study also demonstrates that the perspective adopted in an economic evaluation can influence the final result.

Background

A lack of social support is associated with increased morbidity and mortality and a decreased effect of prevention. Frequent attenders to primary care are characterised by poorer social conditions than other patients in general practice, but we do not know whether this is due to social inequalities in health or whether social factors in themselves determine the use of general practice.

Aim

To examine if social factors are associated with frequent attendance in general practice after adjusting for physical and psychological health variables.

Design of study

Population-based cross-sectional survey.

Setting

Two hundred and twenty GPs in 132 practices in the county of Aarhus, Denmark, and the listed adult population (aged 20–64 years).

Method

A sample of frequent attenders and infrequent attenders was drawn. The study included only those resident in the county and who had consulted a GP during the period November 1997–October 1998. A questionnaire about physical, psychological and social factors was sent to the patients. The associations between social factors and frequent attendance were adjusted for physical and psychological health and tendency towards somatisation.

Results

A total of 1423 (73.7%) frequent attenders and 1103 (74.9%) infrequent attenders responded. Male frequent attendance was associated, with statistical significance, with living alone and being without work or on a disability pension. Among women, lack of professional education or being without work tended to increase the likelihood of frequent attendance.

Conclusion

This study shows that for men, social factors may in themselves determine the use of general practice. None of the investigated social factors seemed to restrict the use of general practice.

Background

The prevalence of patients with mental health problems in general practice is high, and at least one-third of these problems last for 6 months or longer. Patients with these problems take up more time during a consultation and attend more frequently.

Aim

This study investigated the effectiveness of problem-solving treatment for primary care patients with mental health problems. The hypothesis was that patients receiving problem-solving treatment from a nurse would have fewer symptoms after 3 months, or a lower attendance rate, compared with patients receiving the usual care from the GP.

Design of the study

Randomised clinical trial.

Setting

Twelve general practices in Amsterdam and 12 nurses from a mental healthcare institution.

Method

A sample of patients aged ≥18 years were screened for mental health problems with the general health questionnaire (GHQ–12) in the waiting room of the general practices, and were randomised. Patients receiving the problem-solving treatment were required to complete four to six treatment sessions, while patients in the control group were treated as usual by the GP.

Results

No significant difference was found between the groups in terms of improved psychopathology or a decrease in attendance rate. Post-hoc analyses showed a sub-group of patients with more severe pathology who may benefit from problem-solving treatment.

Conclusion

The main results show that problem-solving treatment provided by a nurse adds little to the usual care from the GP for frequent attenders with mental health problems. Post-hoc analyses show that there may be a sub-group of more severely depressed patients who could benefit from problem-solving treatment.

Background

In South Africa, the provision of primary health care is a basic service designed to be cost effective and bring healthcare as close as possible to the population, particularly to those people of low economic status. It is a service which is provided free of charge by the South African government and as part of the millennium health goals, it is intended that the service should be accessible to the populace and be effectively utilized.

Objective

This study was designed to investigate the accessibility and utilization of the primary health care services in three community health care centres in the Tshwane of the Gauteng Province, South Africa.

Methodology

Data were obtained from participants attending three Community Health Care Centres in the Tshwane Region using self-administered structured questionnaires. A document review of the Community Health Care Centres records was conducted to investigate the utilization trends of the services provided and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data obtained.

Results

The results showed that the Community Health Care Centres in the Tshwane Region are accessible to most participants who lived within 5 km of such centres and who traveled 30 minutes or less to the clinic. Using a taxi or walking were found to be the most common means of transport used to gain access to such a clinic. The findings showed that generally, participants were satisfied with the services provided.

Conclusion

Participants of this study have access to the community health care centres in the Tshwane Region and there seems to be effective utilization by patients attending them.

OBJECTIVE—To examine the relations between demographic factors, specific psychosocial factors, and cardiac rehabilitation attendance.
DESIGN—Cohort, repeated measures design.
SETTING—A large tertiary care centre in western Canada
PATIENTS—304 consecutive consenting patients discharged following acute myocardial infarction and/or coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES—The Jenkins self-efficacy expectation scales and activity checklists of behaviour performance for maintaining health and role resumption, modified version of the self-motivation inventory, and the shortened social support scale.
RESULTS—Those who had higher role resumption behaviour performance scores at two weeks after discharge were significantly less likely to attend cardiac rehabilitation programmes. At six months after discharge, those who attended cardiac rehabilitation demonstrated higher health maintenance self-efficacy expectation and behaviour performance scores. Health maintenance self-efficacy expectation and behaviour performance improved over time. Women reported less social support but showed greater improvement in health maintenance self-efficacy expectation. Changes in self-efficacy scores were unrelated to—but changes in health maintenance behaviour performance scores were strongly associated with—cardiac rehabilitation attendance.
CONCLUSIONS—Cardiac patients and practitioners may have misconceptions about the mandate and potential benefits of rehabilitation programmes. Patients who resumed role related activities early and more completely apparently did not see the need to "rehabilitate" while those who attended cardiac rehabilitation programmes enhanced their secondary prevention behaviours.


Keywords: self-efficacy; motivation; social support; cardiac recovery; cardiac rehabilitation