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Impotence is one of the common complications after the radical prostatectomy. One of the main reasons of this complication is due to the dysfunction of the veins in corpus cavernosum. Recent studies have shown that the erectile function is improved after the long-term therapy of phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor among patients with post-prostatectomy erectile dysfunction. In this study, we evaluated the effects of mirodenafil on the penile erection and corpus cavernosum tissues in the rat model of cavernosal nerve injury. Rats were divided into four groups: (1) control group, (2) bilateral cavernosal nerve injury group, (3) mirodenafil 10 mg therapy group after the nerve injury and (4) mirodenafil 20 mg therapy group after the nerve injury. After we identified the nerve from the pelvic nerve complex on the lateral side of the prostate, the rats in the control group were sutured without causing any nerve injury and in other groups we damaged the nerve by compressing it with a vessel clamp. Then, 10 and 20 mg kg−1 of mirodenafil were orally administered to two experimental groups. After 8 weeks, the intracavernosal pressure (ICP) was recorded. The immunohistochemical staining and western blot were performed, and the effect of mirodenafil on the expression of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) was evaluated through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The ICP of nerve-injured group was decreased compared with the control group; however, the ICP of the mirodenafil-administered groups was improved compared with the nerve-injured group. The Masson's trichrome staining confirmed that the smooth muscle (SM) component was increased in the mirodenafil-administered groups. The nitric oxide synthase expression and cGMP of mirodenafil-administered groups was increased compared with the nerve-injured group. Long-term therapy of mirodenafil may improve the erectile function after the radical prostatectomy by preserving the SM content and inhibiting the fibrosis of the corpus cavernosum.

Objectives:

Arteriogenic erectile dysfunction (ED) is a target organ disease of atherosclerosis, and therefore might be a predictor of systemic atherosclerosis. Being systemic, it might be possible to evaluate the extent of atherosclerosis from retinal vascular findings. We investigated the possible correlation between penile cavernosal artery blood flow and retinal vascular findings in patients with arteriogenic ED.

Patients and methods:

Sixty patients with ED were divided according to the peak systolic velocity (PSV) in their penile cavernosal arteries into two groups; Group A included 30 patients with PSV less than 25 cm/sec, and Group B included 30 patients with PSV more than 35 cm/sec. Blood flow in the penile cavernosal artery was measured with color Doppler ultrasonography. All patients were assessed by ocular fundus examination under amydriatic conditions to evaluate retinal vascular atherosclerotic changes using Hyman’s classification.

Results:

Evidence of retinal vascular atherosclerotic changes was found in 19 patients (63.3%) in Group A and in 10 patients (33.3%) in Group B.

Conclusions:

Our study confirms the possibility of predicting penile arterial vascular status in patients with ED from their retinal vascular findings by using amydriatic simple, practical funduscopy.

OBJECTIVE

To study the relation between metabolic syndrome (MS), cavernosal morphological vasculopathy, and peripheral vascular alterations (carotid and femoral wall) in patients with erectile dysfunction.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 207 patients and 50 control subjects were evaluated for cardiovascular risk factors, physical examination, reproductive hormones, ultrasound analysis of cavernosal, carotid and femoral arteries (intima-media thickness), and cavernosal flow measurement (peak systolic velocity).

RESULTS

A total of 28% of patients had MS, and they presented with a high prevalence of cavernosal alterations (70.3%) and systemic vascular impairment (59.3%), whereas patients with cavernosal alterations (44%) showed the higher prevalence of MS (48.9%). The number of MS components was related to the prevalence of penile vasculopathy. However, multivariate analysis showed that MS is not an independent predictor for cavernosal vasculopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with cavernosal vasculopathy have an increased cardiometabolic risk, and screening for MS components might identify individuals with a higher risk for cavernosal and systemic atherosclerosis.

Introduction

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is considered an early clinical manifestation of vascular disease and an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events associated with endothelial dysfunction and increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), a pro-inflammatory cytokine, suppresses endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression.

Aim

Considering that nitric oxide (NO) is of critical importance in penile erection, we hypothesized that blockade of TNF-α actions would increase cavernosal smooth muscle relaxation through an increase in NOS expression.

Methods

In vitro organ bath studies were used to measure cavernosal reactivity in wild type and TNF-α knockout (TNF-α KO) mice and NOS expression was evaluated by western blot. In addition, spontaneous erections (in vivo) were evaluated by videomonitoring the animals (30 min.). Collagen and elastin expression were evaluated by Masson trichrome and Verhoff-van Gieson stain reaction, respectively.

Main Outcome Measures

Corpora cavernosa from TNF-α KO mice exhibited increased NO-dependent relaxation, which was associated with increased eNOS and neuronal NOS (nNOS) cavernosal expression.

Results

Cavernosal strips from TNF-α KO mice displayed increased endothelium-dependent [97.4±5.3 vs Control: 76.3±6.3, %] and nonadrenergic-noncholinergic (NANC) [93.3±3.0 vs Control: 67.5±16.0; 16 Hz] relaxation compared to control animals. These responses were associated with increased protein expression of eNOS and nNOS (p<0.05). Sympathetic-mediated [0.69±0.16 vs Control: 1.22±0.22; 16 Hz] as well as phenylephrine-induced contractile responses [1.6±0.1 vs Control: 2.5±0.1, mN] were attenuated in cavernosal strips from TNF-α KO mice. Additionally, corpora cavernosa from TNF-α KO mice displayed increased collagen and elastin expression. In vivo experiments demonstrated that TNF-α KO mice display increased number of spontaneous erections.

Conclusion

Corpora cavernosa from TNF-α KO mice display alterations that favor penile tumescence, indicating that TNF-α plays a detrimental role in erectile function. A key role for TNF-α in mediating endothelial dysfunction in ED is markedly relevant since we now have access to anti-TNF-α therapies.

To our knowledge penile lymphoedema secondary to Proteus syndrome has not previously been reported. Hence we report a case of a 16-year-old male who was referred with features of right hemi-hypertrophy and severe lymphoedema affecting his scrotum and penis. He had previously undergone scrotal reduction surgery at the age of 13, but had since developed worsening penile oedema. His main concern was that of cosmetic appearance prior to sexual debut, and he also complained of erectile dysfunction. An MRI confirmed gross oedema of the penile skin, but normal underlying cavernosal structure, and no other anatomical abnormality. Under general anaesthesia, the entire diseased penile skin was excised. Two full thickness skin grafts were harvested from the axillae, and grafted onto the dorsal and ventral penile shaft respectively. A compressive dressing and urinary catheter was applied for 7 days. Follow-up at 4 months confirmed complete graft take with minimal scarring, and the patient was very satisfied with the cosmetic outcome. He had also noticed a recovery in erectile activity, and feels psychologically and physically more prepared for sexual relations.

Introduction

A role for cytokines in the pathophysiology of erectile dysfunction (ED) has emerged. Cytokines induce genes that synthesize other peptides in the cytokine family and several mediators, such as prostanoids, leukotrienes, nitric oxide, bradykinin, reactive oxygen species, and platelet-activating factor, all of which can affect vascular function. Consistent with the fact that the cavernosal tissue is a complex extension of the vasculature, risk factors that affect the vasculature have been shown to affect cavernosal function as well. Accordingly, the penile tissue has been recognized as an early sentinel for atherosclerosis that underlies coronary artery disease and cardiovascular diseases (CVD).

Aim

To review the literature pertaining to the role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in ED.

Methods

PubMed search for pertinent publications on the role of cytokines, particularly TNF-α, in CVD and ED.

Main Outcome Measures

Clinical and experimental evidence demonstrates that TNF-α may play a role in ED.

Results

TNF-α has been shown to play an important role in CVD, mainly due to its direct effects on the vasculature. In addition, high levels of TNF-α were demonstrated in patients with ED. In this review, we present a short description of the physiology of erection and the cytokine network. We focus on vascular actions of TNF-α that support a role for this cytokine as a potential candidate in the pathophysiology of ED, particularly in the context of CVD. A brief overview of its discovery, mechanisms of synthesis, receptors, and its main actions on the systemic and penile vasculature is also presented.

Conclusions

Considering that ED results from a systemic arterial defect not only confined to the penile vasculature, implication of TNF-α in the pathophysiology of ED offers a humoral linking between CVD and ED.

Purpose

Endothelial dysfunction and peripheral neuropathy are important mechanisms responsible for diabetes-induced erectile dysfunction (ED). Nerve injury-induced protein 1 (Ninjurin 1) is known to be related to neuroinflammatory processes and is also reported to induce vascular regression during the developmental period. In the present study, we determined the differential expression of Ninjurin 1 in penile tissue of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice with ED.

Materials and Methods

Diabetes was induced in 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice by intraperitoneal injections of STZ (50 mg/kg for 5 days). Eight weeks later, erectile function was measured by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve (n=6 per group). The penis was then harvested for immunohistochemical analysis and Western blot analysis for Ninjurin 1 (n=4 per group). We also determined Ninjurin 1 expression in primary cultured mouse cavernous endothelial cells (MCECs) incubated under the following conditions: normal glucose condition (5 mM), high-glucose condition (30 mM), and high-glucose condition (30 mM)+insulin (1 nM).

Results

The expression of Ninjurin 1 protein was significantly higher in both cavernous endothelial cells and the dorsal nerve bundle of diabetic mice than in those of controls. In the in vitro study in MCECs, Ninjurin 1 expression was also significantly increased by the high-glucose condition and was returned to baseline levels by treatment with insulin.

Conclusions

Regarding the role of Ninjurin 1 in neuropathy and vascular regression, it would be interesting to examine the effects of inhibition of Ninjurin 1 on erectile function in animal models of ED with a vascular or neurogenic cause.

Mondia whitei root was evaluated to validate its anecdotal use and determine its possible mode of action in the management of erectile dysfunction. Rabbits were administered with daily oral doses of 100–400 mg kg−1 crude ethanolic extract of M. whitei and sildenafil (50 mg kg−1) as positive control for 6 weeks. Cavernosal tissue NOS activity and levels of NO and cGMP, and NOS and PDE protein expressions were investigated. The effect of the crude extract, chloroform and petroleum ether fractions in vitro on cavernosal tissue NOS activity and levels of NO and cGMP at 0.01 and 0.10 mg g−1 tissue were also investigated. Results indicate that the crude extract increased NOS activity by 7% at 200 mg kg−1 with corresponding increases in NO (88%) and cGMP (480%) levels. No significant changes in these measurements were observed with the 100 and 400 mg kg−1 doses whilst sildenafil slightly reduced them (15.9–37.5%). NOS and PDE protein expressions in test animals were not different from controls. Pre-incubation of cavernosal tissue in vitro with the crude extract of M. whitei and its chloroform fraction markedly increased NOS activity (26–132%) and levels of NO (25%) and cGMP (50–400%) at 0.01 mg g−1 tissue but these were reduced to near control levels when their concentrations were increased to 0.10 mg g−1 tissue whilst the petroleum ether fraction had no effect. These findings suggest that M. whitei may influence erectile function through activation/stimulation of NOS with corresponding increases in tissue NO and cGMP levels and that certain chemical constituents present in the chloroform fraction may be responsible for biological activity.

In regard to erectile function, Yin is flaccidity and Yang erection. In the past decade, research has mostly focused on the Yang aspect of erectile function. However, in recent years, the Yin side is attracting increasingly greater attention. This is due to the realization that penile flaccidity is no less important than penile erection and is actively maintained by mechanisms that play critical roles in certain types of erectile dysfunction (ED); for example, in diabetic patients. In addition, there is evidence that the Yin and Yang signaling pathways interact with each other during the transition from flaccidity to erection, and vice versa. As such, it is important that we view erectile function from not only the Yang but also the Yin side. The purpose of this article is to review recent advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate the Yin and Yang of the penis. Emphasis is given to the Rho kinase signaling pathway that regulates the Yin, and to the cyclic nucleotide signaling pathway that regulates the Yang. Discussion is organized in such a way so as to follow the signaling cascade, that is, beginning with the extracellular signaling molecules (e.g., norepinephrin and nitric oxide) and their receptors, converging onto the intracellular effectors (e.g., Rho kinase and protein kinase G), branching into secondary effectors, and finishing with contractile molecules and phosphodiesterases. Interactions between the Yin and Yang signaling pathways are discussed as well.

Introduction

Diabetes-induced erectile dysfunction involves elevated arginase (Arg) activity and expression. Because nitric oxide (NO) synthase and Arg share and compete for their substrate L-arginine, NO production is likely linked to regulation of Arg. Arg is highly expressed and implicated in erectile dysfunction.

Aim

It was hypothesized that Arg-II isoform deletion enhances relaxation function of corpora cavernosal (CC) smooth muscle in a streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic model.

Methods

Eight weeks after STZ-induced diabetes, vascular functional studies, Arg activity assay, and protein expression levels of Arg and constitutive NOS (using western blots) were assessed in CC tissues from non-diabetic wild type (WT), diabetic (D) WT (WT+D), Arg-II knockout (KO) and Arg-II KO+D mice (N=8–10 per group).

Main Outcome Measures

Inhibition or lack of arginase results in facilitation of CC relaxation in diabetic CC.

Results

Strips of CC from Arg-II KO mice exhibited an enhanced maximum endothelium-dependent relaxation (from 70+3% to 84+4%) and increased nitrergic relaxation (by 55%, 71%, 42%, 42%, and 24% for 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 Hz, respectively) compared to WT mice. WT+D mice showed a significant reduction of endothelium-dependent maximum relaxation (44+8%), but this impairment of relaxation was significantly prevented in Arg-II KO+D mice (69+4%). Sympathetic-mediated and alpha-adrenergic agent-induced contractile responses also were increased in CC strips from D compared to non-D controls. Contractile responses were significantly lower in Arg-II KO control and D versus the WT groups. WT+D mice increased Arg activity (1.5-fold) and Arg-II protein expression and decreased total and phospho-eNOS at Ser-1177, and nNOS levels. These alterations were not seen in Arg-II KO mice. Additionally, the Arg inhibitor BEC (50 μM) enhanced nitrergic and endothelium-dependent relaxation in CC of WT+D mice.

Conclusion

These studies show for the first time that Arg-II deletion improves CC relaxation in type 1 diabetes.

New developments in the diagnosis and treatment of impotence or erectile dysfunction are increasingly based on better understanding of the erectile process. In 1978 it was thought that the failure of arterial inflow was the main cause of male erectile dysfunction. Emphasis was placed on methods of corpus cavernosal revascularization. In recent years, interest has shifted to abnormal cavernosal smooth muscle function. An understanding of the erectile process was greatly enhanced by intracavernosal administration of vasoactive agents in 1982 and, more recently, the use of prostaglandin E1. These agents promote erection by causing smooth muscle to relax. The intracavernosal administration of vasoactive agents is now used in diagnosis and in therapy. Standard approaches to diagnosis and therapy still vary, but more rational steps are evolving. Considerable progress has been made in quantifying penile blood flow. Increasingly effective therapies are available for an estimated 10 million American men suffering from erectile dysfunction. Therapies include the use of drugs, administering vasoactive agents intracavernosally, vacuum constrictor devices, and vascular interventions in highly selected cases of arterial or venous disease. These procedures are being carefully reevaluated. Critical analysis of recent results suggests that about 7% of men are amendable to vascular interventions, with success rates approximating 70% when supplemental therapy is used.

The role of sonic hedgehog (SHH) in maintaining corpora cavernosal morphology in the adult penis has been established; however, the mechanism of how SHH itself is regulated remains unclear. Since decreased SHH protein is a cause of smooth muscle apoptosis and erectile dysfunction (ED) in the penis, and SHH treatment can suppress cavernous nerve (CN) injury-induced apoptosis, the question of how SHH signaling is regulated is significant. It is likely that neural input is involved in this process since two models of neuropathy-induced ED exhibit decreased SHH protein and increased apoptosis in the penis. We propose the hypothesis that SHH abundance in the corpora cavernosa is regulated by SHH signaling in the pelvic ganglia, neural activity, or neural transport of a trophic factor from the pelvic ganglia to the corpora. We have examined each of these potential mechanisms. SHH inhibition in the penis shows a 12-fold increase in smooth muscle apoptosis. SHH inhibition in the pelvic ganglia causes significantly increased apoptosis (1.3-fold) and decreased SHH protein (1.1-fold) in the corpora cavernosa. SHH protein is not transported by the CN. Colchicine treatment of the CN resulted in significantly increased smooth muscle apoptosis (1.2-fold) and decreased SHH protein (1.3-fold) in the penis. Lidocaine treatment of the CN caused a similar increase in apoptosis (1.6-fold) and decrease in SHH protein (1.3-fold) in the penis. These results show that neural activity and a trophic factor from the pelvic ganglia/CN are necessary to regulate SHH protein and smooth muscle abundance in the penis.

Introduction

Erectile dysfunction (ED) as well as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are associated with endothelial dysfunction and increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α).

Aim

We hypothesized that increased TNF-α levels impair cavernosal function.

Methods

In vitro organ bath studies were used to measure cavernosal reactivity in mice infused with vehicle or TNF-α (220 ng.Kg.−1min.−1) for 14 days. Gene expression of NOS isoforms was evaluated by real time PCR.

Main Outcome Measures

Corpora cavernosa from TNF-α-infused mice exhibited decreased NO-dependent relaxation, which was associated with decreased endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and neuronal (nNOS) NOS cavernosal expression.

Results

Cavernosal strips from TNF-α-infused mice displayed decreased nonadrenergic-noncholinergic (NANC)-induced relaxation [59.4±6.2 vs Control: 76.2±4.7; 16 Hz] compared to control animals. These responses were associated with decreased gene expression of eNOS and nNOS (p<0.05). Sympathetic-mediated as well as phenylephrine (PE)-induced contractile responses [PE-induced contraction; 1.32±0.06 vs Control: 0.9±0.09, mN] were increased in cavernosal strips from TNF-α-infused mice. Additionally, infusion of TNF-α increased cavernosal responses to ET-1 and ETA receptor expression (p<0.05) and slightly decreased TNF-α receptor 1 (TNFR1) expression (p=0.063).

Conclusion

Corpora cavernosa from TNF-α-infused mice display increased contractile responses and decreased NANC nerve-mediated relaxation associated with decreased eNOS and nNOS gene expression. These changes may trigger ED and indicate that TNF-α plays a detrimental role in erectile function. Blockade of TNF-α actions may represent an alternative therapeutic approach for ED, especially in pathological conditions associated with increased levels of this cytokine.

Erectile dysfunction mechanisms in diabetic patients are multifactorial and often lead to resistance to current therapy. Animal toxins have been used as pharmacological tools to study penile erection. Human accidents involving the venom of Phoneutria nigriventer spider are characterized by priapism. We hypothesize that PnTx2-6 potentiates cavernosal relaxation in diabetic mice by increasing cGMP. This effect is nNOS dependent. Cavernosal strips were contracted with phenylephrine (10−5 M) and relaxed by electrical field stimulation (EFS, 20V, 1–32 Hz) in the presence or absence of PnTx2-6 (10−8 M).Cavernosal strips from nNOS and eNOS knocaut (KO) mice, besides nNOS inhibitor (10−5M), were used to evaluate the role of this enzyme in the potentiation effect evoked by PnTx2-6. Tissue cGMP levels were determined after stimulation with PnTx2-6 in presence or absence of L-NAME (10−4M) and ω-conotoxin GVIA (10−6M), an N-type calcium channel inhibitor. Results showed PnTx2-6 enhanced cavernosal relaxation in diabetic mice (65%) and eNOS KO mice, but not in nNOS KO mice. The toxin effect in the cavernosal relaxation was abolished by nNOS inhibitor. cGMP levels are increased by PnTx2-6, however L-NAME abolished this enhancement as well as ω-conotoxin GVIA. We conclude PnTx2-6 facilitates penile relaxation in diabetic mice through a mechanism dependent on nNOS, probably via increasing NO/cGMP production.

INTRODUCTION

Hypercholesterolemia induces erectile dysfunction (ED) mostly by increasing oxidative stress and impairing endothelial function in the penis, but the mechanisms regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the penis are not understood.

AIMS

We evaluated whether hypercholesterolemia activates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAD[P]H) oxidase in the penis, providing an initial source of ROS to induce endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uncoupling and endothelial dysfunction resulting in ED.

METHODS

Low-density-lipoprotein receptor (LDLR)–null mice were fed Western diet for 4 weeks to induce early-stage hyperlipidemia. Wild type (WT) mice fed regular chow served as controls. Mice received NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor apocynin (10 mM in drinking water) or vehicle. Erectile function was assessed in response to cavernous nerve electrical stimulation. Markers of endothelial function (phospho [P]-vasodilator-stimulated-protein [VASP]-Ser-239), oxidative stress (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal [HNE]), sources of ROS (eNOS uncoupling and NAD[P]H oxidase subunits p67phox, p47phox, and gp91phox), P-eNOS-Ser-1177, and eNOS were measured by Western blot in penes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Molecular mechanisms of ROS generation and endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia-induced ED.

RESULTS

Erectile response was significantly (P<0.05) reduced in hypercholesterolemic LDLR-null mice compared to WT mice. Relative to WT mice, hypercholesterolemia increased (P<0.05) protein expressions of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits p67phox, p47phox and gp91phox, eNOS uncoupling, and 4-HNE-modified proteins, and reduced (P<0.05) P-VASP-Ser-239 expression in the penis. Apocynin treatment of LDLR-null mice preserved (P<0.05) maximal intracavernosal pressure, and reversed (P < 0.05) the abnormalities in protein expressions of gp67phox and gp47phox, 4-HNE, P-VASP-Ser-239, and eNOS uncoupling in the penis. Apocynin treatment of WT mice did not affect any of these parameters. Protein expressions of P-eNOS-Ser-1177 and total eNOS were unaffected by hypercholesterolemia.

CONCLUSION

Activated NAD(P)H oxidase in the penis is an initial source of oxidative stress resulting in eNOS uncoupling, thus providing a mechanism of eNOS uncoupling and endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia-induced ED.

Introduction

Hypertension is closely associated with erectile dysfunction (ED) as it has been observed in many experimental models of hypertension. Additionally, epidemiological studies show that approximately a third of the hypertensive patients have ED.

Aim

To test the hypothesis that the two-kidney one-clip (2K-1C) rat model of hypertension displays normal erectile function due to increased nitric oxide (NO) production in the penis.

Methods

Ganglionic-induced increase in intracavernosal pressure (ICP)/mean arterial pressure (MAP) ratio was used as an index of erectile function in 2K-1C and in normotensive sham-operated (SHAM) anesthetized rats. Cavernosal strips from hypertensive and normotensive rats were used for isometric tension measurement. The contraction induced by alpha-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine, and the relaxation induced by the nitric oxide (NO) donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and by the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y-27632 were performed in the absence and in the presence of the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NNA.

Results

Changes in ICP/MAP induced by ganglionic stimulation were not different between 2K-1C and SHAM rats. The contractile response induced by phenylephrine as well as the relaxation induced by SNP or the Y-27632 were similar in cavernosal strips from both groups. However, in the presence of L-NNA, the relaxation induced by Y-27632 was significantly impaired in 2K-1C compared to SHAM).

Conclusions

These data suggest that hypertension and ED could be dissociated from high levels of blood pressure in some animal models of hypertension. Erectile function in 2K-1C hypertensive rats is maintained in spite of the increased Rho-kinase activity by increased NO signaling.

Introduction

Angiotensin II (AngII) activates p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and elevates arginase activity in endothelial cells. Upregulation of arginase activity has been implicated in endothelial dysfunction by reducing NO bioavailability. However, signaling pathways activated by AngII in the penis are largely unknown.

Aim

We hypothesized that activation of p38 MAPK increases arginase activity and thus impairs penile vascular function in AngII-treated mice.

Methods

Male C57BL/6 mice were implanted with osmotic minipumps containing saline or AngII (42 μg/kg/h) for 14 days and co-treated with p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB 203580 (5 μg/kg/day), beginning 2 days before minipump implantation. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured. Corpus cavernosum (CC) tissue was used for vascular functional studies and protein expression levels of p38 MAPK, arginase and constitutive NOS, and arginase activity.

Main Outcome Measures

Arginase expression and activity; expression of phospho-p38 MAPK, -eNOS and nNOS proteins; endothelium-dependent and nitrergic nerve-mediated relaxations were determined in CC from control and AngII-infused mice.

Results

AngII increased SBP (22%) and increased CC arginase activity and expression (~2-fold), and phosphorylated P38 MAPK levels (30%) over control. Treatment with SB 203580 prevented these effects. Endothelium-dependent NO-mediated relaxation to acetylcholine was significantly reduced by AngII and this effect was prevented by SB 203580 (P<0.01). AngII (2-week) did not alter nitrergic function. However, SB 203580 significantly increased nitrergic relaxation in both control and AngII tissue at lower frequencies. Maximum contractile responses for phenylephrine and electrical field stimulation were increased by AngII (56% and 171%, respectively), and attenuated by SB 203580 treated. AngII treatment also decreased eNOS phosphorylation at Ser-1177 compared to control. Treatment with SB 203580 prevented all these changes.

Conclusion

p38 MAPK inhibition corrects penile arginase activity and protects against erectile dysfunction caused by AngII.

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). Although type 2 DM is responsible for 90–95% diabetes cases, type 1 DM experimental models are commonly used to study diabetes-associated ED.

Aim

Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rat model is relevant to ED studies since the great majority of patients with type 2 diabetes display mild deficits in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia. We hypothesized that GK rats display ED which is associated with decreased nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability.

Methods

Wistar and GK rats were used at 10 and 18 weeks of age. Changes in the ratio of intracavernosal pressure/mean arterial pressure (ICP/MAP) after electrical stimulation of cavernosal nerve were determined in vivo. Cavernosal contractility was induced by electrical field stimulation (EFS) and phenylephrine (PE). In addition, nonadrenergic-noncholinergic (NANC)- and sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-induced relaxation were determined. Cavernosal neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) mRNA and protein expression were also measured.

Main Outcome Measure

GK diabetic rats display ED associated with decreased cavernosal expression of eNOS protein.

Results

GK rats at 10 and 18 weeks demonstrated impaired erectile function represented by decreased ICP/MAP responses. Ten-week-old GK animals displayed increased PE responses and no changes in EFS-induced contraction. Conversely, contractile responses to EFS and PE were decreased in cavernosal tissue from GK rats at 18 weeks of age. Moreover, GK rats at 18 weeks of age displayed increased NANC-mediated relaxation, but not to SNP. In addition, ED was associated with decreased eNOS protein expression at both ages.

Conclusion

Although GK rats display ED, they exhibit changes in cavernosal reactivity that would facilitate erectile responses. These results are in contrast to those described in other experimental diabetes models. This may be due to compensatory mechanisms in cavernosal tissue to overcome restricted pre-penile arterial blood supply or impaired veno-occlusive mechanisms.

Background & Aims

The Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) has been identified as a suppressor of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Loss of RKIP function promotes tumor metastasis in prostate cancer and melanoma. The IGF-I mediated MAPK cascade is often activated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but the role of RKIP in the molecular pathogenesis of these tumors is unknown. This study was performed to evaluate the role of RKIP in HCC development.

Methods

The levels of RKIP expression in HCC tumor and corresponding peritumoral tissues were determined by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. The underlying mechanisms of RKIP were assessed with immunoblot analysis, Raf kinase activity assay, cell proliferation and migration assays after either overexpression or knockdown of RKIP expression in HCC cell lines.

Results

RKIP expression is downregulated in human HCC compared to adjacent peritumoral tissues. Low RKIP levels were correlated with enhanced extracellular-signal-regulated-kinase (ERK)/MAPK pathway activation. Reconstitution experiments antagonized IGF-I mediated MAPK pathway activation resulting in reduced nuclear accumulation of phospho-ERK. In contrast, knockdown of RKIP expression using siRNA induced activation of the ERK/MAPK pathway. Ectopic expression of RKIP altered HCC cell proliferation and migration.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that downregulation of RKIP expression is a major factor in activation of the IGF-I/ERK/MAPK pathway during human hepatocarcinogenesis.

Multiple growth- and differentiation-inducing polypeptide factors bind to and activate transmembrane receptors tyrosine kinases (RTKs), to instigate a plethora of biochemical cascades culminating in regulation of cell fate. We concentrate on the four linear mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades, and highlight organizational and functional features relevant to their action downstream to RTKs. Two cellular outcomes of growth factor action, namely proliferation and migration, are critically regulated by MAPKs and we detail the underlying molecular mechanisms. Hyperactivation of MAPKs, primarily the Erk pathway, is a landmark of cancer. We describe the many links of MAPKs to tumor biology and review studies that identified machineries permitting prolongation of MAPK signaling. Models attributing signal integration to both phosphorylation of MAPK substrates and to MAPK-regulated gene expression may shed light on the remarkably diversified functions of MAPKs acting downstream to activated RTKs.

Introduction

Erectile dysfunction (ED) in diabetes is associated with autonomic neuropathy and endothelial dysfunction. Whereas the nonadrenergic-noncholinergic (NANC)/neurogenic nitric oxide pathway has received great attention in diabetes-associated ED, few studies have addressed sympathetic overactivity.

Aim

To test the hypothesis that adenosine-induced inhibition of adrenergic-mediated contractile responses in mouse corpus cavernosum is impaired in the presence of diabetes.

Methods

The db/db (obesity and type II diabetes caused by a leptin receptor mutation) mouse strain was used as a model of obesity and type II diabetes, and standard procedures were performed to evaluate functional cavernosal responses.

Main Outcome Measures

Increased cavernosal responses to sympathetic stimulation in db/db mice are not associated with impaired prejunctional actions of adenosine.

Results

Electrical field stimulation (EFS)-, but not phenylephrine (PE)-, induced contractions are enhanced in cavernosal strips from db/db mice in comparison with those from lean littermates. Direct effects of adenosine, 2-chloro-adenosine, A1 receptor agonist C-8031 (N6 cyclopentyladenosine), and sodium nitroprusside are similar between the strips from lean and db/db mice, whereas relaxant responses to acetylcholine and NANC stimulation are significantly impaired in the cavernosal strips from db/db mice. 5′-Iodotubercidin (adenosine kinase inhibitor) and dipyridamole (inhibitor of adenosine transport), as well as the A1 agonist C-8031, significantly and similarly inhibit contractions induced by stimulation of adrenergic nerves in the cavernosal strips from lean and db/db mice.

Conclusions

Results from this study suggest that corpora cavernosa from obese and diabetic db/db mice display altered neural-mediated responses that would favor penile detumescence, i.e., increased contractile response to adrenergic nerve stimulation and decreased relaxant responses upon activation of NANC nerves. However, increased cavernosal responses to adrenergic nerve stimulation are not due to impaired negative modulation of sympathetic neurotransmission by adenosine in this diabetic model.

In contrast to cutaneous melanoma, there is no evidence that BRAF mutations are involved in the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in uveal melanoma, although there is increasing evidence that this pathway is activated frequently in the latter tumours. In this study, we performed mutation analysis of the RAS and BRAF genes in a panel of 11 uveal melanoma cell lines and 19 primary uveal melanoma tumours. In addition, Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses were performed on downstream members of the MAPK pathway in order to assess the contribution of each of these components. No mutations were found in any of the three RAS gene family members and only one cell line carried a BRAF mutation (V599E). Despite this, mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK), ERK and ELK were constitutively activated in all samples. These data suggest that activation of the MAPK pathway is commonly involved in the development of uveal melanoma, but occurs through a mechanism different to that of cutaneous melanoma.

AIM: To explore the effect of Echinococcus multilocularis (E. multilocularis) on the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways and on liver cell proliferation.

METHODS: Changes in the phosphorylation of MAPKs and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression were measured in the liver of patients with alveolar echinococcosis (AE). MAPKs, MEK1/2 [MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) kinase] and ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) phosphorylation were detected in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes in contact in vitro with (1) E. multilocularis vesicle fluid (EmF), (2) E. multilocularis-conditioned medium (EmCM).

RESULTS: In the liver of AE patients, ERK 1/2 and p38 MAPK were activated and PCNA expression was increased, especially in the vicinity of the metacestode. Upon exposure to EmF, p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and ERK1/2 were also activated in hepatocytes in vitro, as well as MEK1/2 and RSK, in the absence of any toxic effect. Upon exposure to EmCM, only JNK was up-regulated.

CONCLUSION: Previous studies have demonstrated an influence of the host on the MAPK cascade in E. multilocularis. Our data suggest that the reverse, i.e. parasite-derived signals efficiently acting on MAPK signaling pathways in host liver cells, is actually operating.

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies in South East Asia. Although activation of the MEK-MAPK is often associated with cellular growth, the role of MEK-MAPK in growth and survival of hepatocarcinoma cells has not been established.

Methods

Immuno-histochemistry was used to localize phosphorylated MAPK and MEK1/2 in the tissues. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-y1)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and ELISA were used to determine cell viability and cell proliferation. Deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay was used to detect apoptotic cells. Western blots analysis was performed to determine the levels of proteins involved in the MEK-MAPK and apoptotic pathways. Transfection study was performed to assess the role of MEK-MAPK pathway in growth and survival of liver cancer cells.

Results

We report that phosphorylation of MEK1/2 at Ser217/221 was detected by immuno-histochemistry in 100% (46 of 46) of HCCs examined. A positive signal was localized in the nuclei of hepatocarcinoma cells but not in dysplastic hepatocytes or stromal cells. Over-expression and phosphorylation of MAPK was also detected in 91% (42 of 46) and 69% (32 of 46) of HCCs examined, respectively. The percentage of cells showing positively for phosphorylated MEK1/2 increased with advancing tumor stage. In vitro, treatment of human HepG2 and Hep3B cells with MEK1/2 specific inhibitors U0126 and PD98059 led to growth inhibition and apoptosis. U0126 induced the release of cytochrome c and increased the cleavage of caspase-3, caspase-7, and poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI-3K), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 kinase activities caused only a mild apoptosis in HepG2 and Hep3B cells. Activated MEK1-transfected cells were more resistant to UO126-induced apoptosis in vitro and formed larger tumors in SCID mice than mock-transfected cells.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our results demonstrate that MEK-MAPK plays an important role in the growth and survival of liver cancer cells and suggest that blocking MEK-MAPK activity may represent an alternative approach for the treatment of liver cancer.

Purpose

Primary culture of the cavernous smooth muscle cells from corpus cavernous tissues is known to be difficult, mainly because of contamination with fibroblasts. We applied a new method for better isolation of rat penile smooth muscle cells (RPSMCs) from rat corpus cavernosum tissue for reliable ex vivo research on erectile dysfunction.

Materials and Methods

With the use of 8-week-old adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, ex vivo migrations of rat cavernous tissue were measured by penis and aortic ring assay by use of a Matrigel-based D-valine-modified culture method. The expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM)-1 in the RPSMCs was determined by standard immunofluorescent staining and immunoblotting. The expression patterns of phosphodiesterase (PDE) family mRNA in RPSMCs were compared with patterns in rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) by use of quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.

Results

Immunocytochemical staining showed greater α-SMA-positive and PCAM-1-negative fluorescence. Moreover, whereas the expression of α-SMA was detected in the RPSMCs, that of PECAM-1 was not. The levels of PDE1A, PDE1B, PDE1C, PDE2A, PDE3A, PDE4A, PDE4B, PDE4C, PDE4D, and PDE5A mRNA in the RPSMCs were about 3.2-, 4.4-, 3.4-, 29.0-, 3.5-, 2.8-, 2.9-, 6.1-, 45.0-, and 6.0-fold the corresponding expression in RASMCs.

Conclusions

We developed a two-stage tissue culture method utilizing a Matrigel-based sprouting culture system to facilitate stromal cell sprouting and an adherent culture system using D-valine to eliminate the contamination of fibroblasts into the smooth muscle cells.