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The CRTC1-MAML2 fusion oncogene underlies the etiology of mucoepidermoid salivary gland carcinoma (MEC) where it confers a favorable survival outcome as compared with fusion-negative MEC. While these analyses suggested that detection of CRTC1-MAML2 serves as a useful prognostic biomarker, we recently identified outlier cases of fusion-positive MEC associated with advanced-staged lethal disease. To identify additional genetic alterations that might cooperate with CRTC1-MAML2 to promote disease progression, we performed a pilot high-resolution oligonucleotide array CGH (aCGH) and PCR-based genotyping study on 23 MEC samples including14 fusion-positive samples for which we had clinical outcome information. Unbiased aCGH analysis identified inactivating deletions within CDKN2A as a candidate poor prognostic marker which was confirmed by PCR-based analysis (CDKN2A deletions in 5/5 unfavorable fusion-positive cases and 0/9 favorable fusion-positive cases). We did not detect either activating EGFR mutations, nor copy number gains at the EGFR or ERBB2 loci as poor prognostic features for fusion-positive MEC in any of the tumor specimens. Prospective studies with larger case series will be needed to confirm that combined CRTC1-MAML2 and CDKN2A genotyping will optimally stage this disease.

Background

The regulation of programmed cell death is critical to developmental homeostasis and normal morphogenesis of embryonic tissues. Survivin, a member of the inhibitors of apoptosis protein (IAP) family primarily expressed in embryonic cells, is both an anti-apoptosis and a pro-survival factor. Since our previous studies have demonstrated the importance of apoptosis during embryonic submandibular salivary gland (SMG) development, we postulated that survivin is a likely mediator of SMG epithelial cell survival.

Results

We investigated the developmental expression of survivin in Pseudoglandular (~ E14), Canalicular (~ E15) and Terminal Bud (~ E17) Stage SMGs. We report a significant 26% increase in transcript levels between the Canalicular and Terminal Bud Stages. Immunohistochemical studies demonstrate nuclear-localized survivin protein in epithelial cells bounding forming lumina in Canalicular and Terminal Bud Stage SMGs.

Conclusions

Survivin is known to be a pro-survival and anti-apoptotic factor. Given that survivin translocation into the nucleus is required for the induction of entry into the cell cycle and the inhibition of apoptosis, our demonstration of nuclear-localized survivin protein in presumptive ductal and proacinar lumen-bounding cells suggests that survivin may be a key mediator of embryonic SMG epithelial cell survival.

During fasting periods, hepatic glucose production is enhanced by glucagon to provide fuels for other organs. This process is mediated via cAMP-dependent induction of the CREB regulated transcriptional coactivator (CRTC) 2, a critical transcriptional activator for hepatic gluconeogenesis. We have previously shown that CRTC2 activity is regulated by AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) family members. Here we show that adiponectin and thiazolidinedione directly regulate AMPK to modulate CRTC2 activity in hepatocytes. Adiponectin or thiazolidinedione lowered glucose production from primary hepatocytes. Treatment of both reagents reduced gluconeogenic gene expression as well as cAMP-mediated induction of CRE reporter, suggesting that these reagents directly affect CREB/CRTC2- dependent transcription. Furthermore, adiponectin or thiazolidinedione mediated repression of CRE activity is largely blunted by co-expression of phosphorylation defective mutant CRTC2, underscoring the importance of serine 171 residue of this factor. Taken together, we propose that adiponectin and thiazolidinedione promote the modulation of AMPK-dependent CRTC2 activity to influence hepatic gluconeogenesis.

During early fasting, increases in skeletal muscle proteolysis liberate free amino acids for hepatic gluconeogenesis in response to pancreatic glucagon. Hepatic glucose output diminishes during the late protein-sparing phase of fasting, when ketone body production by the liver supplies compensatory fuel for glucose-dependent tissues 1–4. Glucagon stimulates the gluconeogenic program by triggering the dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the CREB regulated transcription coactivator 2 (CRTC2; also known as TORC2), while parallel decreases in insulin signaling augment gluconeogenic gene expression through the de-phosphorylation and nuclear shuttling of Forkhead Box O1 (FOXO1) 5–7. Here we show that a fasting-inducible switch, consisting of the histone acetyl-transferase (HAT) P300 and the nutrient-sensing deacetylase Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), maintains energy balance through the sequential induction of CRTC2 and FOXO1. Following glucagon induction, CRTC2 stimulated gluconeogenic gene expression through an association with P300, which we show here is also activated by de-phosphorylation at Ser89 during fasting. In turn, P300 increased hepatic CRTC2 activity by acetylating it at Lys628, a site that also targets CRTC2 for degradation following its ubiquitination by the E3 ligase Constitutive Photomorphogenic Protein (COP1) 8. Glucagon effects were attenuated during late fasting, when CRTC2 was down-regulated due to SIRT1-mediated deacetylation and when FOXO1 supported expression of the gluconeogenic program. Disrupting SIRT1 activity, by liver-specific knockout of the SIRT1 gene or by administration of SIRT1 antagonist, increased CRTC2 activity and glucose output, while exposure to SIRT1 agonists reduced them. In view of the reciprocal activation of FOXO1 and its coactivator peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) by SIRT1 activators 9–12, our results illustrate how the exchange of two gluconeogenic regulators during fasting maintains energy balance.

Background

Recently we identified a relationship between human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) and human salivary gland (SG) mucoepidermoid carcinoma (MEC) in over 90% of cases; tumorigenesis in these cases uniformly correlated with active hCMV protein expression and an upregulation of the EGFR → ERK pathway. Our previously characterized, novel mouse organ culture model of mouse CMV (mCMV)-induced tumorigenesis displays a number of histologic and molecular characteristics similar to human MEC.

Methods

Newborn mouse submandibular glands (SMGs) were incubated with 1 × 105 PFU/ml of lacZ-tagged mCMV RM427+ on day 0 for 24 hours and then cultured in virus-free media for a total of 6 or 12 days with or without EGFR/ERK inhibitors and/or aciclovir. SMGs were collected for histology, immunolocalization (pERK, FN, IL-6), viral distribution, or Western blot analysis (pERK).

Results

Here we report: (1) mouse SMG tumors soon exhibit an acquired resistance to EGFR/ERK pathway kinase inhibitors, alone or in combination; (2) long term tumor regression can only be sustained by concurrent inhibitor and antiviral treatment; (3) CMV-dependent, kinase inhibitor resistance is associated with overexpression of fibronectin and IL-6 proteins in abnormal stromal cells.

Conclusions

Acquired resistance to kinase inhibitors is dependent upon CMV dysregulation of alternative pathways with downstream effectors common with the targeted pathway, a phenomenon with important therapeutic implications for human MEC of salivary glands.

Objective:

Mouse Twisted gastrulation gene (Twsg1) expression is found throughout embryonic development, including substantial levels in the first branchial arch that gives rise to the submandibular salivary gland (SMG). We addressed the proposition that normal Twsg1 expression is critical to normal SMG ontogenesis.

Design

Utilizing C57BL/6 embryos that were Twsg1−/− homozygotes, as well as wild type and heterozygote littermates, we investigated SMG development from gestational day 13 to newborn.

Results

Twsg1 protein is immunodetected in epithelia throughout SMG development. Twsg1−/− embryos display widely variable craniofacial phenotypes that range from normal to severe holoprosencephaly/agnathia with no mandibular arch or stomodeum. The SMG phenotypes are correlated with the external craniofacial phenotype, ranging from normal to agenesis/aplasia.

Conclusions

It is evident that normal Twsg1 expression is critical for normal mouse SMG ontogenesis. Twsg1 loss of function is ultimately epistatic to the epigenome under normal physiologic conditions, but not always so. The reduced penetrance and variable expressivity seen in the SMGs of Twsg1−/− embryos is a challenging enigma.

Branching morphogenesis is essential for the formation of salivary glands, kidneys, lungs, and many other organs during development, but the mechanisms underlying this process are not adequately understood. Microarray and other gene expression methods have been powerful approaches for identifying candidate genes that potentially regulate branching morphogenesis. However, functional validation of the proposed roles for these genes has been severely hampered by the absence of efficient techniques to genetically manipulate cells within embryonic organs. Using ex vivo cultured embryonic mouse submandibular glands (SMGs) as models to study branching morphogenesis, we have identified new vectors for viral gene transfer with high efficiency and cell-type specificity to developing SMGs. We screened adenovirus, lentivirus, and 11 types of adeno-associated viruses (AAV) for their ability to transduce embryonic day 12 or 13 SMGs. We identified two AAV types, AAV2 and bovine AAV (BAAV), that are selective in targeting expression differentially to SMG epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations, respectively. Transduction of SMG epithelia with self-complementary (sc) AAV2 expressing fibroblast growth factor 7 (Fgf7) supported gland survival and enhanced SMG branching morphogenesis. Our findings represent, to our knowledge, the first successful selective gene targeting to epithelial vs. mesenchymal cells in an organ undergoing branching morphogenesis.

Aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is known to be central for salivary fluid secretion. A study of the temporal-spatial distribution of AQP5 during submandibular gland (SMG) development and in adult tissues might offer further clues to its unknown role during development. In the present work, SMGs from embryonic day (E) 14.5–18.5 and postnatal days (P) 0, 2, 5, 25, and 60 were immunostained for AQP5 and analyzed using light microscopy. Additional confocal and transmission electron microscopy were performed on P60 glands. Our results show that AQP5 expression first occurs in a scattered pattern in the late canalicular stage and becomes more prominent and organized in the terminal tubuli/pro-acinar cells towards birth. Additional apical membrane staining in the entire intralobular duct is found just prior to birth. During postnatal development, AQP5 is expressed in both the luminal and lateral membrane of pro-acinar/acinar cells. AQP5 is also detected in the basal membrane of acinar cells at P25 and P60. In the intercalated ducts at P60, the male glands show apical staining in the entire segment, while only the proximal region is positive in the female glands. These results demonstrate an evolving distribution of AQP5 during pre- and postnatal development in the mouse SMGs.

Salivary gland organogenesis involves the specification, maintenance, lineage commitment, and differentiation of epithelial stem/progenitor cells. Identifying how stem/progenitor cells are directed along a series of cell fate decisions to form a functional salivary gland will be necessary for future stem cell regenerative therapy. The identification of stem/progenitor cells within the salivary gland has focused on their role in postnatal glands and little is known about them in embryonic glands. Here, we have reviewed the information available for other developing organ systems and used it to determine whether similar cell populations exist in the mouse submandibular gland. Additionally, using growth factors that influence salivary gland epithelial morphogenesis during development, we have taken a simple experimental approach asking whether any of these growth factors influence early developmental lineages within the salivary epithelium on a transcriptional level. These preliminary findings show that salivary epithelial stem/progenitor populations exist within the gland, and that growth factors that are reported to control epithelial morphogenesis may also impact cell fate decisions. Further investigation of the signaling networks that influence stem/progenitor cell behavior will allow us to hypothesize how we might induce autologous stem cells to regenerate damaged salivary tissue in a therapeutic context.

In fasted mammals, circulating pancreatic glucagon stimulates hepatic gluconeogenesis in part through the CREB Regulated Transcription Coactivator 2 (CRTC2; also referred to as TORC2) 1,2. Hepatic glucose production is elevated in obesity, reflecting chronic increases in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress that promote insulin resistance 3. Whether ER stress also modulates the gluconeogenic program directly, however, is unclear. Here we show that CRTC2 functions as a dual sensor for ER stress and fasting signals in liver. Acute increases in ER stress triggered the dephosphorylation and nuclear entry of CRTC2, which in turn promoted the expression of ER quality control genes through an association with Activating Transcription Factor 6 alpha (ATF6α), an integral branch of the unfolded protein response 4–9. In addition to mediating CRTC2 recruitment to ER stress inducible promoters, ATF6α also reduced hepatic glucose output by disrupting the CREB:CRTC2 interaction and thereby inhibiting CRTC2 occupancy over gluconeogenic genes. Conversely, hepatic glucose output was upregulated when hepatic ATF6α protein amounts were reduced, either by RNAi-mediated knockdown or as a result of persistent stress in obesity. As ATF6α over-expression in livers of obese mice reversed CRTC2 effects on the gluconeogenic program and lowered hepatic glucose output, our results demonstrate how cross-talk between ER stress and fasting pathways at the level of a transcriptional coactivator contributes to glucose homeostasis.

Branching morphogenesis (BrM), an essential step for salivary gland development, requires epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. BrM is impaired when the surrounding mesenchyme is detached from the salivary epithelium during the pseudoglandular stage. It is believed that the salivary mesenchyme is indispensable for BrM, however, an extracellular matrix gel with exogenous EGF can be used as a substitute for the mesenchyme during BrM in the developing salivary epithelium. Stem/progenitor cells isolated from salivary glands in humans and rodents can be classified as mesenchymal stem cell-like, bone-marrow-derived, duct cell-like, and embryonic epithelium-like cells. Salivary-gland-derived progenitor (SGP) cells isolated from duct-ligated rats, mice, and swine submandibular glands share similar characteristics, including intracellular laminin and α6β1-integrin expression, similar to the embryonic salivary epithelia during the pseudoglandular stage. Progenitor cells also isolated from human salivary glands (human SGP cells) having the same characteristics differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells when transplanted into the liver. Similar to the dissociated embryonic salivary epithelium, human SGP cells aggregate to self-organize into branching organ-like structures on Matrigel plus exogenous EGF. These results suggest the possibility that tissue stem cells organize rudiment-like structures, and the embryonic cells that organize into whole tissues during development are preserved even in adult tissues.

Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is the most common malignant salivary gland tumor, composed of several different cell types, with controversial histogenesis. The aim of this study was to assess the expression of cytokeratins in mucoepidermoid carcinoma, comparing to cytokeratin expression in normal salivary glands, in order to establish a possible correlation between tumor cells immunostaining and mucoepidermoid carcinoma histogenesis and differentiation. Eighty cases of salivary gland mucoepidermoid carcinoma were immunohistochemically examined with the use of antibodies against cytokeratins 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 18, and 19. Cytokeratin expression varied according to the cellular type: squamous cells presented high expression of cytokeratins 6, 7, 8, 14, 18, and 19; intermediate and mucous cells of cytokeratin 7; clear and columnar cells of cytokeratins 6, 7, 8 and the latter also expressed cytokeratin 18. Cytokeratin 13 expression was low in all cell types. Cytokeratin immunoexpression in mucoepidermoid carcinoma was variable according to the cellular type; but regardless of the cellular type studied, cytokeratins 7 and 13 were, respectively, constantly high and low expressed. The immunoprofile of the normal salivary glands was variable according to the component but, in general, cytokeratin profile in mucoepidermoid carcinoma showed similarity to the immunoexpression on the excretory duct unit of normal salivary glands.

Tumors of salivary glands are uncommon and comprise of about 2%–4% of all head and neck tumors. About 75%–80% of these tumors are benign and include pleomorphic adenoma, monomorphic adenoma, oncocytoma, and papillary cystadenoma lymphomatosum. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is the most common malignant tumor of salivary glands, representing 5–10% of all salivary gland tumors. Although known to be metastatic to local lymph nodes, distant metastases are rare (especially, with low and intermediate grade tumors). Histologic grade and the expression of various mucin glycoproteins are useful prognostic indicators. We present a case of mucoepidermoid carcinoma of parotid gland origin with distant metastases which is an uncommon occurrence with intermediate grade tumors. Also, this is the first reported case of humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy secondary to mucoepidermoid carcinoma.

Activating AMPK or inactivating calcineurin slows ageing in Caenorhabditis elegans1,2 and both have been implicated as therapeutic targets for age-related pathology in mammals3–5. However, the direct targets that mediate their effects on longevity remain unclear. In mammals, CREB-regulated transcriptional coactivators (CRTCs)6 are a family of cofactors involved in diverse physiological processes including energy homeostasis7–9, cancer10 and endoplasmic reticulum stress11. Here we show that both AMPK and calcineurin modulate longevity exclusively through post-translational modification of CRTC-1, the sole C. elegans CRTC. We demonstrate that CRTC-1 is a direct AMPK target, and interacts with the CREB homologue-1 (CRH-1) transcription factor in vivo. The pro-longevity effects of activating AMPK or deactivating calcineurin decrease CRTC-1 and CRH-1 activity and induce transcriptional responses similar to those of CRH-1 null worms. Downregulation of crtc-1 increases lifespan in a crh-1-dependent manner and directly reducing crh-1 expression increases longevity, substantiating a role for CRTCs and CREB in ageing. Together, these findings indicate a novel role for CRTCs and CREB in determining lifespan downstream of AMPK and calcineurin, and illustrate the molecular mechanisms by which an evolutionarily conserved pathway responds to low energy to increase longevity.

In the fasted state, increases in circulating glucagon promote hepatic glucose production through induction of the gluconeogenic program. Triggering of the cAMP pathway increases gluconeogenic gene expression via the de-phosphorylation of the CREB coactivator CRTC2 1. Glucagon promotes CRTC2 dephosphorylation in part through the PKA-mediated inhibition of the CRTC2 kinase SIK2. A number of Ser/Thr phosphatases appear capable of dephosphorylating CRTC2 2,3, but the mechanisms by which hormonal cues regulate these enzymes remain unclear. Here we show that glucagon stimulates CRTC2 dephosphorylation in hepatocytes by mobilizing intracellular calcium stores and activating the calcium/calmodulin dependent Ser/Thr phosphatase calcineurin/PP2B. Glucagon increased cytosolic calcium through the PKA-mediated phosphorylation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP3Rs), which we show here associate with CRTC2. Following their activation, InsP3Rs enhanced gluconeogenic gene expression by promoting the calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation of CRTC2. During feeding, increases in insulin signaling reduced CRTC2 activity via the AKT-mediated inactivation of InsP3Rs. InsP3R activity was increased in diabetes, leading to upregulation of the gluconeogenic program. As hepatic down-regulation of InsP3Rs and calcineurin improved circulating glucose levels in insulin resistance, these results demonstrate how cross-talk between cAMP and calcium pathways at the level of the InsP3 receptor modulates hepatic glucose production under fasting conditions and in diabetes.

The human kallikrein 8 protein (KLK8) is expressed in many normal tissues including esophagus, skin, testis, tonsil, kidney, breast, and salivary gland, and is found in biological fluids including breast milk, amniotic fluid, seminal fluid and serum. It has also been shown to be a biomarker and prognostic factor for breast cancer. The aim of this study was to determine whether KLK8 is expressed in salivary gland tissues and salivary gland tumors (both benign and malignant), in order to compare normal with tumor tissues. Pleomorphic adenomas, adenoid cystic carcinomas, polymorphous low grade adenocarcinomas, acinic cell carcinomas, mucoepidermoid carcinomas, and adenocarcinomas NOS of both minor and major salivary glands were examined. The results of this study indicate that most salivary gland tumors show high levels of expression of KLK8.

Summary

The liver contributes to glucose homeostasis by promoting either storage or production of glucose depending on the physiological state. The cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) is a principal regulator of genes involved in coordinating the hepatic response to fasting, but its mechanism of gene activation remains controversial. We derived CRTC2-(CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 2; previously TORC2) deficient mice to assess the contribution of this cofactor to hepatic glucose metabolism in vivo. CRTC2 mutant hepatocytes showed reduced glucose production in response to glucagon, which correlated with decreased CREB binding to several gluconeogenic genes. However, despite attenuated expression of CREB target genes including PEPCK, G6Pase, and PGC1α, no hypoglycemia was observed in mutant mice. Collectively, these results provide genetic evidence supporting a role for CRTC2 in the transcriptional response to fasting, but indicate only a limited contribution of this cofactor to the maintenance of glucose homeostasis.

SUMMARY

During an immune response, B cells undergo rapid proliferation and AID-dependent remodeling of immunoglobulin (IG) genes within germinal centers (GCs) to generate memory B and plasma cells. Unfortunately, the genotoxic stress associated with the GC reaction also promotes most B cell malignancies. Here we report that exogenous- and intrinsic AID-induced DNA strand breaks activate ATM, which signals through an LKB1 intermediate to inactivate CRTC2, a transcriptional coactivator of CREB. Using genome-wide location analysis, we determined that CRTC2 inactivation unexpectedly represses a genetic program that controls GC B cell proliferation, self-renewal, and differentiation while opposing lymphomagenesis. Inhibition of this pathway results in increased GC B cell proliferation, reduced antibody secretion, and impaired terminal differentiation. Multiple distinct pathway disruptions were also identified in human GC B cell lymphoma patient samples. Combined, our data show that CRTC2 inactivation, via physiologic DNA damage response signaling, promotes B cell differentiation in response to genotoxic stress.

Background

The proper balance between epithelial cell proliferation, quiescence, and apoptosis during development is mediated by the specific temporal and spatial appearance of transcription factors, growth factors, cytokines, caspases, etc. Since our prior studies suggest the importance of transcription factor NF-κB during embryonic submandibular salivary gland (SMG) development, we attempted to delineate the emergent dynamics of a cognate signaling network by studying the molecular patterns and phenotypic outcomes of interrupted NF-κB signaling in embryonic SMG explants.

Results

SN50-mediated inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation in E15 SMG explants cultured for 2 days results in a highly significant increase in apoptosis and decrease in cell proliferation. Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) analyses of transcriptomic and proteomic assays identify specific transcripts and proteins with altered expression that best discriminate control from SN50-treated SMGs. These include PCNA, GR, BMP1, BMP3b, Chk1, Caspase 6, E2F1, c-Raf, ERK1/2 and JNK-1, as well as several others of lesser importance. Increased expression of signaling pathway components is not necessarily probative of pathway activity; however, as confirmation we found a significant increase in activated (phosphorylated/cleaved) ERK 1/2, Caspase 3, and PARP in SN50-treated explants. This increased activity of proapoptotic (caspase3/PARP) and compensatory antiapoptotic (ERK1/2) pathways is consistent with the dramatic cell death seen in SN50-treated SMGs.

Conclusions

Our morphological and functional genomic analyses indicate that the primary and secondary effects of NF-κB-mediated transcription are critical to embryonic SMG developmental homeostasis. Relative to understanding complex genetic networks and organogenesis, our results illustrate the importance of evaluating the gene, protein, and activated protein expression of multiple components from multiple pathways within broad functional categories.

Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is a common malignant epithelial tumor of salivary glands, but relatively rare in lung. The histological features of mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lung are similar to its counterpart arising from the salivary glands. Here, we reported a special tumor that occurred in the medial segment of the right lower lobe in a 22-year-old man. This tumor exhibited typical features of mucoepidermoid carcinoma with 3 cell types: squamoid cells, mucin-secreting cells and cells of intermediate type. These 3 types of cells organized into cysts, nests, glands and solid patterns. Specially, the inner lining cells of some glandular structures were uniform cuboidal and hobnail-like, similar to the alveolar epithelial cells. Immunohistochemistry staining revealed that the inner lining cells of glandular structures were positive for thyroid transcription factor-1 and surfactant protein-B, used as markers of alveolar epithelial cells, and were negative for p63. These findings for the first time demonstrated a rare alveolar epithelial differentiation of glandular inner lining cells in a mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lung.

Virtual Slides

The virtual slide(s) for this article can be found here: http://www.diagnosticpathology.diagnomx.eu/vs/7095988968057804

It is well-known that the morphological variability of mucoepidermoid carcinoma (MEC) of the salivary glands may lead to interpretative difficulties on fine-needle aspiration (FNA) diagnosis. In this study we identify morphologic features that may be useful in the FNA diagnosis of MEC. The cohort included 23 cases of MEC; cytology and histology slides were reviewed and assessed for % cystic component, extracellular mucin, mucous and intermediate cells, oncocytes, cells with foamy/clear cytoplasm, keratinized cells and lymphocytes. On FNA 12/23 (52%) cases were diagnosed as consistent with or suggestive of MEC; 6/23 (26%) as salivary gland neoplasm and 5/23 (22%) as no tumor seen. The cystic component was ≥50% in 18/23 (78%) and <50% in 5 cases. The features prevalent in FNA and histology were: mucous cells (96% and 91%), extracellular mucin (91% both), intermediate cells (100 and 83%), lymphocytes (96 and 78%) and cells with foamy/clear cytoplasm (74% both). Oncocytes were seen in 43 and 22% and keratinized cells in 48 and 13% cases. Cases with oncocytes and lymphocytes were interpreted as favor Warthin's tumor on FNA. Presence of mucous cells, cells with foamy/clear cytoplasm, intermediate cells and lymphocytes in a mucinous background are diagnostic indicators of MEC; presence of oncocytes should not refrain from diagnosing MEC in FNA specimens.

Background

Information on the biology of metastasis development in salivary gland tumors is scarce. Since angiogenesis seems associated with this phenomenon in other tumors, we sought to compare salivary gland tumors with diverse metastatic behavior in order to improve the knowledge and management of these lesions.

Methods

Samples from the most important salivary gland tumors were segregated according to its metastatic behavior and submitted to routine immunohistochemistry to identify vessels positive for CD105 expression. Frequency of positive cases and intratumoral microvessel density (IMD) was compared among the group of lesions.

Results

CD105 positive vessels were absent in normal salivary gland tissue, were rare in pleomorphic adenomas and adenoid cystic carcinomas (ACC), more common in polymorphous low-grade adenocarcinomas and highest in mucoepidermoid carcinomas. Only ACC with such feature were metastatic. IMD was higher in malignant rather than benign tumors.

Conclusion

Immunostaining of CD105 in salivary gland tumors implies participation of angiogenesis in the development of malignant lesions, as well as some role for myoepithelial cells in the control of new vessel formation. In addition, suggest that ACC with positive CD105 vessels are at higher risk for metastasis.

The development of mouse submandibular gland (SMG) begins at embryonic day 11.5–12 (E11.5–12), during which successive rounds of epithelial clefting and branching create complex epithelial tree-like structures. Homeobox genes regulate place-dependent morphogenesis, including epithelial-mesenchymal interactions, and control the expression patterns of signaling molecules. The Barx2 containing Homeobox exerts several key roles in development. Some studies have shown that the Barx2 plays important roles in the epithelial-mesenchymal interactions of organogenesis. However, the mechanisms of Barx2 associated with the development of SMG are obscure. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time the exact spatial and temporal Barx2 expression pattern in SMG epithelial tissue during development using immunohistochemical staining and Real-Time quantitative PCR. Barx2 was expressed in the nucleus of the epithelial cells located in the proliferative and differentiative regions of the developing SMG during the early development stages (E11.5–E13.5). After the E14.5-time period, the expression gradually decreased, and at E16.5, expression mostly disappeared despite the fact that evidence of cytodifferentiation, such as the appearance of proacinar cells, distinct lumen formation, and secretory products, was beginning to be observed. Results of Real-Time PCR demonstrated that the amount of Barx2 mRNA expression in SMG was maximal on E14.5, and gradually decreased by E18.5. These results indicate that Barx2 is associated with early stage epithelial tissue development, and can be a useful epithelial marker of the SMG during early developmental stages.

Background

Because of the infrequence of salivary gland tumours and their complex histopathological diagnosis it is still difficult to exactly predict their clinical course by means of recurrence, malignant progression and metastasis. In order to define new proliferation associated genes, purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of human α-defensins (DEFA) 1/3 and 4 in different tumour entities of the salivary glands with respect to malignancy.

Methods

Tissue of salivary glands (n=10), pleomorphic adenomas (n=10), cystadenolymphomas (n=10), adenocarcinomas (n=10), adenoidcystic carcinomas (n=10), and mucoepidermoid carcinomas (n=10) was obtained during routine surgical procedures. RNA was extracted according to standard protocols. Transcript levels of DEFA 1/3 and 4 were analyzed by quantitative realtime PCR and compared with healthy salivary gland tissue. Additionally, the proteins encoded by DEFA 1/3 and DEFA 4 were visualized in paraffin-embedded tissue sections by immunohistochemical staining.

Results

Human α-defensins are traceable in healthy as well as in pathological altered salivary gland tissue. In comparison with healthy tissue, the gene expression of DEFA 1/3 and 4 was significantly (p<0.05) increased in all tumours – except for a significant decrease of DEFA 4 gene expression in pleomorphic adenomas and a similar transcript level for DEFA 1/3 compared to healthy salivary glands.

Conclusions

A decreased gene expression of DEFA 1/3 and 4 might protect pleomorphic adenomas from malignant transformation into adenocarcinomas. A similar expression pattern of DEFA-1/3 and -4 in cystadenolymphomas and inflamed salivary glands underlines a potential importance of immunological reactions during the formation of Warthin’s tumour.

Regenerative therapy of the salivary gland (SG) is a promising therapeutic approach for irreversible hyposalivation in patients with head and neck cancer treated by radiotherapy. However, little is known about the molecular regulators of stem/progenitor cell activity and regenerative processes in the SG. Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates the function of many adult stem cell populations, but its role in SG development and regeneration is unknown. Using BAT-gal Wnt reporter transgenic mice, we demonstrate that in the submandibular glands (SMGs) of newborn mice Wnt/β-catenin signaling is active in a few cells at the basal layer of intercalated ducts, the putative location of salivary gland stem/progenitor cells (SGPCs). Wnt activity decreases as mice age, but is markedly enhanced in SG ducts during regeneration of adult SMG after ligation of the main secretory duct. The Hedgehog (Hh) pathway is also activated after duct ligation. Inhibition of epithelial β-catenin signaling in young Keratin5-rtTA/tetO-Dkk1 mice impairs the postnatal development of SMG, particularly affecting maturation of granular convoluted tubules. Conversely, forced activation of epithelial β-catenin signaling in adult Keratin5-rtTA/tetO-Cre/Ctnnb1(Ex3)fl mice promotes proliferation of ductal cells, expansion of the SGPC compartment, and ectopic activation of Hh signaling. Taken together, these results indicate that Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates the activity of SGPCs during postnatal development and regeneration upstream of the Hh pathway, and suggest the potential of modulating Wnt/β-catenin and/or Hh pathways for functional restoration of SGs after irradiation.