Related Articles

Purpose

Exploring the indicators most crucial for actors in health and social care services and identifying those which lead up to the initiation and implementation of integrated care. By analysing the reasons why integrated care is chosen and initiated, the underlying mechanisms and decision-making processes of integrated care are highlighted.

Theory

Even though integrated care projects and programmes are implemented in very different settings and health systems one can find the same main actors everywhere. They share similar goals and principles which are universal and not unique to one specific country or system. Hence, it is likely that the type of actor, i.e. health insurance, is more influential on the decision-making process than the health system and surrounding setting. In other words, it was stipulated that a health insurer in the Netherlands will have similar priorities for integrated care as a health insurer in Singapore and hence will choose similar integrated care approaches.

On the other hand, system administrators can strongly incentivise or discourage innovation and cooperation within the health and social care dominions, i.e. by passing laws or (re)organising the financing system. It is suggested that integrated care is implemented more widely in countries where stakeholders receive targeted incentives and fragmentation within the system is less pronounced.

Methods

The hypotheses were tested using an international expert questionnaire, contacting integrated care managers and decision-makers in Europe, North America and Australasia. The results were quantitatively analyzed using SPSS.

Results and conclusions

Integrated care is stipulated to offer solutions to the demographic changes, the concurring increase of chronic disease and the pressures on restricted resources experienced in the modern health systems of today. The survey conducted suggested a more diversified picture regarding the expectations and priorities set into the concept by health care decision-makers. While all of these challenges are perceived by them, their undisputed priority is on the introduction and enhancement of management structures on all levels. They do not value financial restrictions as severely as may have been anticipated and they revealed that neither active patient participation nor the introduction of outcome measurement are high priorities when introducing integrated care. The findings also suggest that the same stakeholders follow similar priorities disregarding the different health systems they act in.

In conclusion, two levels of priority setting have been identified as highly important for integrated care initiation: on the policy level, prioritisation of integrated care along with specific promotion measures influence decision-making; on the organisational level, the need for clear structures and better management tools both in the organisation itself and in the management of the targeted patient population, reflect the highest priorities for the decision-making process.

The response rate was 18% with the majority of responses coming from Germany, The Netherlands, UK and the USA.

Discussion

Integrated care has come a long way from the first projects implemented by health insurance organisations to a colourful array of projects and permanent programmes, spanning from local to national level and from very targeted to very broad inclusion criteria, initiated, owned and financed by a mix of all stakeholders and agents in the system. Hence, integrated care developed into a ‘Jack-of-all-trades’ approach, stimulating change and confusion at the same time. Still, in most countries, it has not entered mainstream health care organisation and management and continues to struggle in proving its value. Asking why integrated care is initiated and implemented in the first place helps understand the priorities and objectives of decision-makers in health care, and hence can lead to a more targeted development and application of integrated care models.

Purpose

In 2004, Quebec’s Health and Social Care Ministry implemented an integrative reform aiming to systematize coordination which employed prescriptive devices. The will to systematize coordination practices is supported by formal coordination devices, such as case management. However, many obstacles lay in the path of these devices’ usage.

Theory

This presentation is based on Boltanski and Thévenot’s (1991) theory of conventions. This theory was utilized to analyze the operations that lead to the convened agreements which serve coordination in its formal and emergent aspects.

Methods

We utilized a qualitative and exploratory embedded case study design in which we employed three data collection and analysis methods: a documentary analysis of the integrative prescriptions, interviews aiming to make explicit the concrete coordination practices and direct observation of professional practices.

Results and conclusions

We identified different types of coordination systems in case management practices. Notably, the so-called ‘peri-professional’ system that grants the family caregivers the role of intermediate between the frail elder and the health and social care network, as well as the so-called ‘virtual’ system produced by the technological means of the computerized clinical files.

Background

The literature on integration indicates the need for an enhanced theorization of institutional integration. This article proposes path dependence as an analytical framework to study the systems in which integration takes place.

Purpose

PRISMA proposes a model for integrating health and social care services for older adults. This model was initially tested in Quebec. The PRISMA France study gave us an opportunity to analyze institutional integration in France.

Methods

A qualitative approach was used. Analyses were based on semi-structured interviews with actors of all levels of decision-making, observations of advisory board meetings, and administrative documents.

Results

Our analyses revealed the complexity and fragmentation of institutional integration. The path dependency theory, which analyzes the change capacity of institutions by taking into account their historic structures, allows analysis of this situation. The path dependency to the Bismarckian system and the incomplete reforms of gerontological policies generate the coexistence and juxtaposition of institutional systems. In such a context, no institution has sufficient ability to determine gerontology policy and build institutional integration by itself.

Conclusion

Using path dependence as an analytical framework helps to understand the reasons why institutional integration is critical to organizational and clinical integration, and the complex construction of institutional integration in France.

Introduction

The health care system is in transition. Integrated cares solutions are prominent and even forced by health care policy. But how can we understand the needs of different stakeholders in this system? Why do they still not act effectively and efficiently together? A closer look, using the structuration theory of Anthony Giddens, may be helpful.

Theory

The theory of structuration enables people to explain social interactions. As this is a matter of fact, the health care system was analyzed by the author in her habilitation thesis. The focus of the study laid on the effective and efficient care of the very old people in Germany. The structuration theory was presented, and as an example of practical translation of the theory, the implementation of the ‘Pflegestützpunkte’ (service point for care) was described.

Practice

Giddens' structuration theory is on the one hand complex in theory, and simple on the other hand in practice. Choosing the paradigm may be helpful to explain the motivation of the different stakeholders in the health care system. It would be necessary to create a suitable questionnaire, to get deeper insight in how the different actors in the system act and react. Such a questionnaire should be based on Giddens' theory. The following three dimensions are needed: structure (including domination, legitimation, and signification), interaction (including power, sanctioning, and communication) and modality/duality (including instruments of power, norms and interpretation).

Purpose

Services’ integration comprises organizational, normative, economic, informational and clinical dimensions. Since 2004, the province of Quebec has devoted significant efforts to unify the governance of the main health and social care organizations of its various territories. Notwithstanding the uniformity of the national plan’s prescription, the territorial integration modalities greatly vary across the province.

Theory

This research is based upon a conceptual model of integration that comprises six components: inter-organizational partnership, case management, standardized assessment, a single entry point, a standardized service planning tool and a shared clinical file.

Methods

We conducted an embedded case study in six contrasted sites in terms of their level of integration. All documents prescribing the implementation of integration were retrieved and analyzed.

Results and conclusions

The analyzed documents demonstrate a growing local appropriation of the current integrative reform. Interestingly however, no link seems to exist between the quality of local prescriptions and the level of integration achieved in each site. This finding leads us to hypothesize that the variable quality of the operational accompaniment offered to implement these prescriptions is a variable in play.

Introduction

There is a need for integrated care and smooth collaboration between care-providing organisations and professions to create a continuum of care for frail older people. However, collaboration between organisations and professions is often problematic. The aim of this study was to examine the process of implementing a new continuum of care model in a complex organisational context, and illuminate some of the challenges involved. The introduced model strived to connect three organisations responsible for delivering health and social care to older people: the regional hospital, primary health care and municipal eldercare.

Methods

The actions of the actors involved in the process of implementing the model were understood to be shaped by the actors' understanding, commitment and ability. This article is based on 44 qualitative interviews performed on four occasions with 26 key actors at three organisational levels within these three organisations.

Results and conclusions

The results point to the importance of paying regard to the different cultures of the organisations when implementing a new model. The role of upper management emerged as very important. Furthermore, to be accepted, the model has to be experienced as effectively dealing with real problems in the everyday practice of the actors in the organisations, from the bottom to the top.

Introduction

Québec’s rapidly growing elderly and chronically ill population represents a major challenge to its healthcare delivery system, attributable in part to the system’s focus on acute care and fragmented delivery.

Description of policy practice

Over the past few years, reforms have been implemented at the provincial policy level to integrate hospital-based, nursing home, homecare and social services in 95 catchment areas. Recent organizational changes in primary care have also resulted in the implementation of family medicine groups and network clinics. Several localized initiatives were also developed to improve integration of care for older persons or persons with chronic diseases.

Conclusion and discussion

Québec has a history of integration of health and social services at the structural level. Recent evaluations of the current reform show that the care provided by various institutions in the healthcare system is becoming better integrated. The Québec health care system nevertheless continues to face three important challenges in its management of chronic diseases: implementing the reorganization of primary care, successfully integrating primary and secondary care at the clinical level, and developing effective governance and change management.

Efforts should focus on strengthening primary care by implementing nurse practitioners, developing a shared information system, and achieving better collaboration between primary and secondary care.

Introduction and background

Based on a policy initiative and the foundation of the Competence Centre for Integrated Care by the Austrian Social Security Institutions in 2006, the aim of the project was to identify and prioritise potential diseases and target groups for which integrated care models should be developed and implemented within the Austrian health system. The project was conducted as a cooperation between the Competence Centre for Integrated Care of the Viennese Health Insurance Fund and the Institute of Social Medicine of the Medical University Vienna to ensure the involvement of both, theory and practice.

Project report

The focus of the project was to develop an evidence-based process for the identification and prioritisation of diseases and target groups for integrated care measures. As there was no evidence of similar projects elsewhere, the team set out to design the prioritisation process and formulate the selection criteria based on the work in a focus group, literature reviews and a scientific council of national and international experts. The method and criteria were evaluated by an expert workshop.

Discussion

The active involvement of all stakeholders from the beginning was crucial for the success. The time constraint proved also beneficial since it allowed the project team to demand focus and cooperation from all experts and stakeholders included.

Conclusion

Our experience demonstrates that, with a clear concept and model, an evidence-based prioritisation including all stakeholders can be achieved. Ultimately however, the prioritisation is a political discussion and decision. Our model can only help base these decisions on sound and reasonable assumptions.

Abstract

Purpose

This paper is to distribute first results of the EU Fifth Framework Project ‘Providing integrated health and social care for older persons—issues, problems and solutions’ (PROCARE—http://www.euro.centre.org/procare/). The project's first phase was to identify different approaches to integration as well as structural, organisational, economic and social-cultural factors and actors that constitute integrated and sustainable care systems. It also served to retrieve a number of experiences, model ways of working and demonstration projects in the participating countries which are currently being analysed in order to learn from success—or failure—and to develop policy recommendations for the local, national and European level.

Theory

The paper draws on existing definitions of integrated care in various countries and by various scholars. Given the context of an international comparative study it tries to avoid providing a single, ready-made definition but underlines the role of social care as part and parcel of this type of integrated care in the participating countries.

Methods

The paper is based on national reports from researchers representing ten organisations (university institutes, consultancy firms, research institutes, the public and the NGO sector) from 9 European countries: Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UK. Literature reviews made intensive use of grey literature and evaluation studies in the context of at least five model ways of working in each country.

Results

As a result of the cross-national overview an attempt to classify different approaches and definitions is made and indicators of relative importance of the different instruments used in integrating health and social care services are provided.

Conclusions

The cross-national overview shows that issues concerning co-ordination and integration of services are high on the agenda in most countries. Depending on the state of service development, various approaches and instruments can be observed. Different national frameworks, in particular with respect to financing and organisation, systemic development, professionalisation and professional cultures, basic societal values (family ethics), and political approaches have to be taken into account during the second phase of PROCARE during which transversal and transnational analysis will be undertaken based on an in-depth analysis of two model ways of working in each country.

Discussion

Far from a European vision concerning integrated care, national health and social care systems remain—at best—loosely coupled systems that are facing increasing difficulties, given the current challenges, in particular in long-term care for older persons: increasing marketisation, lack of managerial knowledge (co-operation, co-ordination), shortage of care workers and a general trend towards down-sizing of social care services continue to hamper the first tentative pathways towards integrated care systems.

Background

The PARiHS framework (Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services) has proved to be a useful practical and conceptual heuristic for many researchers and practitioners in framing their research or knowledge translation endeavours. However, as a conceptual framework it still remains untested and therefore its contribution to the overall development and testing of theory in the field of implementation science is largely unquantified.

Discussion

This being the case, the paper provides an integrated summary of our conceptual and theoretical thinking so far and introduces a typology (derived from social policy analysis) used to distinguish between the terms conceptual framework, theory and model – important definitional and conceptual issues in trying to refine theoretical and methodological approaches to knowledge translation.

Secondly, the paper describes the next phase of our work, in particular concentrating on the conceptual thinking and mapping that has led to the generation of the hypothesis that the PARiHS framework is best utilised as a two-stage process: as a preliminary (diagnostic and evaluative) measure of the elements and sub-elements of evidence (E) and context (C), and then using the aggregated data from these measures to determine the most appropriate facilitation method. The exact nature of the intervention is thus determined by the specific actors in the specific context at a specific time and place.

In the process of refining this next phase of our work, we have had to consider the wider issues around the use of theories to inform and shape our research activity; the ongoing challenges of developing robust and sensitive measures; facilitation as an intervention for getting research into practice; and finally to note how the current debates around evidence into practice are adopting wider notions that fit innovations more generally.

Summary

The paper concludes by suggesting that the future direction of the work on the PARiHS framework is to develop a two-stage diagnostic and evaluative approach, where the intervention is shaped and moulded by the information gathered about the specific situation and from participating stakeholders. In order to expedite the generation of new evidence and testing of emerging theories, we suggest the formation of an international research implementation science collaborative that can systematically collect and analyse experiences of using and testing the PARiHS framework and similar conceptual and theoretical approaches.

We also recommend further refinement of the definitions around conceptual framework, theory, and model, suggesting a wider discussion that embraces multiple epistemological and ontological perspectives.

Objective. There is limited theory regarding the real-world implementation of mental health care in the primary care setting: a type of organizational coordination intervention. The purpose of this study was to develop a theory to conceptualize the potential causes of barriers and facilitators to how local sites responded to this mandated intervention to achieve coordinated mental health care. Methods. Data from 65 primary care and mental health staff interviews across 16 sites were analyzed to identify how coordination was perceived one year after an organizational mandate to provide integrated mental health care in the primary care setting. Results. Standardized referral procedures and communication practices between primary care and mental health were influenced by the organizational factors of resources, training, and work design, as well as provider-experienced organizational boundaries between primary care and mental health, time pressures, and staff participation. Organizational factors and provider experiences were in turn influenced by leadership. Conclusions. Our emergent theory describes how leadership, organizational factors, and provider experiences affect the implementation of a mandated mental health coordination intervention. This framework provides a nuanced understanding of the potential barriers and facilitators to implementing interventions designed to improve coordination between professional groups.

Background

While the study of the information technology (IT) implementation process and its outcomes has received considerable attention, the examination of pre-adoption and pre-implementation stages of configurable IT uptake appear largely under-investigated. This paper explores managerial behaviour during the periods prior the effective implementation of a clinical information system (CIS) by two Canadian university multi-hospital centers.

Methods

Adopting a structurationist theoretical stance and a case study research design, the processes by which CIS managers' patterns of discourse contribute to the configuration of the new technology in their respective organizational contexts were longitudinally examined over 33 months.

Results

Although managers seemed to be aware of the risks and organizational impact of the adoption of a new clinical information system, their decisions and actions over the periods examined appeared rather to be driven by financial constraints and power struggles between different groups involved in the process. Furthermore, they largely emphasized technological aspects of the implementation, with organizational dimensions being put aside. In view of these results, the notion of 'rhetorical ambivalence' is proposed. Results are further discussed in relation to the significance of initial decisions and actions for the subsequent implementation phases of the technology being configured.

Conclusions

Theoretical and empirically grounded, the paper contributes to the underdeveloped body of literature on information system pre-implementation processes by revealing the crucial role played by managers during the initial phases of a CIS adoption.

The patient-centered medical home (PCMH) is four things: 1) the fundamental tenets of primary care: first contact access, comprehensiveness, integration/coordination, and relationships involving sustained partnership; 2) new ways of organizing practice; 3) development of practices’ internal capabilities, and 4) related health care system and reimbursement changes. All of these are focused on improving the health of whole people, families, communities and populations, and on increasing the value of healthcare.

The value of the fundamental tenets of primary care is well established. This value includes higher health care quality, better whole-person and population health, lower cost and reduced inequalities compared to healthcare systems not based on primary care.

The needed practice organizational and health care system change aspects of the PCMH are still evolving in highly related ways. The PCMH will continue to evolve as evidence comes in from hundreds of demonstrations and experiments ongoing around the country, and as the local and larger healthcare systems change. Measuring the PCMH involves the following:Giving primacy to the core tenets of primary careAssessing practice and system changes that are hypothesized to provide added valueAssessing development of practices’ core processes and adaptive reserveAssessing integration with more functional healthcare system and community resourcesEvaluating the potential for unintended negative consequences from valuing the more easily measured instrumental features of the PCMH over the fundamental relationship and whole system aspectsRecognizing that since a fundamental benefit of primary care is its adaptability to diverse people, populations and systems, functional PCMHs will look different in different settings.Efforts to transform practice to patient-centered medical homes must recognize, assess and value the fundamental features of primary care that provide personalized, equitable health care and foster individual and population health.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11606-010-1291-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Chronic Care Model (Wagner, WHO) aims to improve the functioning and clinical situation of chronic patients by focussing on the patient, the practice team and the conditions that determine the functioning of the team.

The patient is the most important actor who must be stimulated proactively by a competent, integrated practice team. Six interdependent conditional components are essential: health care organisation, delivery system design, community resources and policies, self-management support systems, decision support and clinical information systems.

While the Chronic Care Model focuses on quality and effectiveness of care, disease management programmes underline more the efficiency of care. These programmes apply industrial management principles in health care. Information about process, structure and outcome is gathered and used systematically and human and material sources are used efficiently.

There is evidence that the approaches of the Chronic Care Model and disease management can be integrated. Both approaches underline the need of information and focus on the patient as the main actor to improve and that a balance can be found between effectiveness and efficiency. Ideas will be given how the Chronic Care Model can be used as a framework for the development of a European way of disease management for people with a chronic condition.

Information technology can support the implementation of clinical research findings in practice settings. Technology can address the quality gap in health care by providing automated decision support to clinicians that integrates guideline knowledge with electronic patient data to present real-time, patient-specific recommendations. However, technical success in implementing decision support systems may not translate directly into system use by clinicians. Successful technology integration into clinical work settings requires explicit attention to the organizational context. We describe the application of a “sociotechnical” approach to integration of ATHENA DSS, a decision support system for the treatment of hypertension, into geographically dispersed primary care clinics. We applied an iterative technical design in response to organizational input and obtained ongoing endorsements of the project by the organization's administrative and clinical leadership. Conscious attention to organizational context at the time of development, deployment, and maintenance of the system was associated with extensive clinician use of the system.

Background

The effective and timely integration of the best available research evidence into healthcare practice has considerable potential to improve the quality of provided care. Knowledge translation (KT) approaches aim to develop, implement, and evaluate strategies to address the research-practice gap. However, most KT research has been directed toward implementation strategies that apply cognitive, behavioral, and, to a lesser extent, organizational theories. In this paper, we discuss the potential of institutional theory to inform KT-related research.

Discussion

Despite significant research, there is still much to learn about how to achieve KT within healthcare systems and practices. Institutional theory, focusing on the processes by which new ideas and concepts become accepted within their institutional environments, holds promise for advancing KT efforts and research. To propose new directions for future KT research, we present some of the main concepts of institutional theory and discuss their application to KT research by outlining how institutionalization of new practices can lead to their ongoing use in organizations. In addition, we discuss the circumstances under which institutionalized practices dissipate and give way to new insights and ideas that can lead to new, more effective practices.

Summary

KT research informed by institutional theory can provide important insights into how knowledge becomes implemented, routinized, and accepted as institutionalized practices. Future KT research should employ both quantitative and qualitative research designs to examine the specifics of sustainability, institutionalization, and deinstitutionalization of practices to enhance our understanding of these complex constructs.

Background

The Population Health Approach, proposed by Health Canada, is the articulation of a long advocated model of human health. This approach strives to ensure that the health system is appropriately oriented to improve health status by applying evidence based practices across the continuum from health determinants to service interventions. Although conceptually appealing, it has been difficult to implement widely in the existing program-based health care system. The Population Health Surveillance Unit (PHSU) of the Vancouver Island Health Authority (VIHA) has developed a health geographical information system (HGIS), where GIS is used as both platform for information integration and as an analytical tool supporting comprehensive data analysis. With the assistance of the HGIS, the theory of the population health approach can be transformed into a practical, stepwise process supporting health services and program planning.

Results

Three important components of a health service planning and evaluation framework grounded in population health theory are described in this article. In particular, a stepwise methodological process to enable the incorporation of the principles of a population health into practical applications is presented; the technical functionality to integrate multiple sources of information, with different levels and scales is discussed; and sources of information about the health of the population at the appropriate level to populate this frame are proposed. An application of the methodology in the planning of health services for a high needs neighbourhood is presented as an illustrative example.

Conclusion

The population health approach incorporates the consideration of health determinants and the context within which the health conditions arise in communities. The complexity of these relationships requires the application of innovative methodologies such as Health GIS to frame the issues practically. A population health based foundation for the planning and evaluation of health services can now move from theory to practice.

Abstract

Purpose

Integrated care for the frail elderly and other populations with complex, chronic, disabling conditions has taken centre stage among policymakers, planners and providers in the United States and other countries. There is a growing belief that integrated care strategies offer the potential to improve service co-ordination, quality outcomes, and efficiency. Therefore, it is critical to have a conceptual understanding of the meaning of integrated care and its various organisational models, as well as practical examples of how such models work. This article examines so-called “fully integrated” models of care in detail, concentrating on two major, well-established American programs, the social health maintenance organisation and the program of all-inclusive care for the elderly.

Theory

A major challenge to understanding the performance and outcomes of fully integrated care and other organisational models is the lack of a meaningful, analytical paradigm. This article builds upon the work of Walter Leutz, to develop a framework by which new and existing programs can be analysed. This framework is then applied to the two American models that are the focus of this article.

Methods

Existing data about integrated care in general, and the two model programs in particular, were collected and analysed from reports published by governmental and non-governmental organisations, and journal articles retrieved from Medline, HealthStar and other sources.

Results and conclusions

This analysis strongly suggests that fully integrated models of care, such as the social health maintenance organisation and program of all-inclusive care for the elderly, are not only feasible, but offer significant potential to improve the delivery of health and social care for frail elderly patients. In addition, the authors identify the factors that are the most critical to the success of fully integrated care, and offer lessons for their development and implementation. Finally, issues are raised concerning the transferability of this complex model to other countries, as well as the vital importance of evidence-based evaluation research in furthering the evolution of integrated care.

Introduction

The PRISMA integration model is a promising method to implement integration in health and social services for elderly people. The PRISMA France study aims to investigate the implementation of this model, which relies on the establishment of advisory boards at institutional, organisational and professional levels of decision-making, in France. These boards are guided by whole systems thinking and function in a joined-up, co-ordinated manner.

Method

A qualitative approach was adopted to study the model's implementation. Analyses were based on semi-structured interviews with actors of all levels of decision-making, observations of advisory board meetings and administrative documentations. Validity was insured by triangulation methods and content saturation.

Results

Our analyses revealed the complexity, instability and fragmentation of the institutional governance of publics policies for elderly people. The ‘path dependence’ to the Bismarckian system and the incomplete reforms of gerontological policies generate a cohabitation of three concurrent policies (national, regional and local) and a juxtaposition of two institutional systems (health and social care policy and social welfare). In such a context, no institution possesses sufficient authority to determine gerontological policy.

Conclusion

In the light of these analyse, the particularly complex and time-consuming implementation of the PRISMA model in France can be better understood.

Introduction

Given recent developments in integrated care, it is becoming increasingly important for the Dutch Health Care Inspectorate to direct its supervision in a way that may help speed up the implementation of integrated care.

Description of care practice

Since the implementation of integrated care for chronic patients is facing obstacles, alternative methods are required to ensure that the implementation process does not run into any delays. By applying a risk-based approach to integrated care providers, the Inspectorate can analyse the care providers' performance by means of quality indicators and rank them. In order to be effective, appropriated supervision arrangements will be applied to the care providers of integrated care.

Discussion

With a ranking model transparency will be improved and this may encourage integrated care providers to strive for greater quality due to the competition inherent in the system. Supervision based on advice and encouragement might be helpful in the implementation of integrated care.

Conclusion

Integrated care also requires integrated supervision, which means the Inspectorate may have to reconsider its working methods and the composition of its inspection teams.

Purpose

To share experiences by discussing the necessity, the challenges and the used (implementation) strategies on integrated care.

Context

Integrated care and chronic care by SGE will be described. SGE delivers with 260 professionals integrated primary healthcare, based on protocols, standards and disease programs for 80,000 people. There is a formalized and structural cooperation with hospitals, their specialists, social services and other organizations.

Because half of all the people with chronic illness have multiple conditions, SGE has taken interest in changing the management of diseases, such as heart failure, COPD, diabetes, depression. Deficiencies in current management and the transformation of health care from reactive to proactive are discussed. Approaches, methods and tools used by SGE are focused on. For example: the transition with the Chronic Care Model. This model summarizes the basic elements for improving health care in health systems at the community, organizations, practice and patient levels. Issues like implementation of chronic care programs and how SGE cooperates with the Maastricht University for evaluating outcomes of effectiveness of integrated care by SGE come up for discussion.

Data source

1. Kodner DL, Spreeuwenberg C. Integrated care: meaning, logic applications and implications, a discussion paper. Int J Integr Care 2002 Oct–Dec;2:e12.

2. Glasgow RE, Davis C, Bonomi AE, Provost L, McCulloch D, Carver P, Sixta C. Quality improvement in chronic illness care: a collaborative approach. Jt Comm J Qual Improv 2001;27:63–80.

3. Pater L, Dubbeldam S, Verweijen M. Implementeren, het speelveld in de praktijk. Lemma 2005.

4. Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M. Improving patient care, the implementation of change in clinical practice. Butterworth-Heinemann 2004.

Preliminary conclusion

The multi-problem patients do need a change in health systems. Despite everything already done, there is still a long way to go. Local, national and international collaborations and networks therefore are a must.

Discussion

Is the Chronic Care Model the model to make integrated care for frail elderly, patients with chronic care or long term care needs possible? The do's and the dont's in implementing integrated care.

Introduction

The main objective of this work is to show how process mapping may contribute to the improvement of intra- and inter-organizational integration of care.

Theory and methods

Under logic of service integration, quality of care depends not only on how the internal processes are implemented, but also on the quality of the transitions of care with external entities. We conducted a case study on a health centre located in the Centre Region of Portugal. Data was collected during the first semester of 2009. Petri nets were used as a modeling tool.

Results

We mapped eleven processes involving a patient directly. The informality of many of the processes became evident. Activities are guided by formalisms imposed by law and by the good practices of professionals. Some processes are not normalized and represented in the computerized information system. The media most used to communicate with other entities are the phone and paper. Under the RNCCI (Rede Nacional de Cuidados Integrados e Continuados—National Network for Integrated Care), the information is all organized in an integrated manner, and the processes are support by a customized, nation-wide, web-based information system. However, this platform is not integrated with the other applications in use.

Conclusions and discussion

We have demonstrated the viability and the benefits of process mapping techniques in the context of a Health Centre. It allowed to identify and understand the ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘who’ of each process, sub-process, task and activity and to develop graphical views of the processes.

Introduction

Demographic ageing is one of the major challenges for governments in developed countries because older people are the main users of health and social care services. More joined-up, partnership approaches supported by information and communications technologies (ICTs) have become key to managing these demands. This article discusses recent developments towards integrated care in the context of one of the arenas in which integration is being attempted, the Single Assessment Process (SAP) to support the care for older people in England. It draws upon accounts of local SAP implementations in order to assess and reflect upon some of the successes and limitations of service integration enabled by ICTs.

Description of care practice

At the Department of Health in England, policy and strategy are directed at the integration of services through a ‘whole systems’ approach, with services that are interdependent upon one another and organised around the person that uses them. The Single Assessment Processes (SAP) is an instance of inter-organisational and cross-sectoral sharing of information intended to improve communication and coordination amongst professions and agencies and so support more integrated care. The aim of SAP is to ensure that older people receive appropriate, effective and timely responses to their health and social care needs and that professionals do not duplicate each others efforts. This article examines examples from two programmes of work within the context of SAP in England: one with the direction coming from local government social services, the other where the momentum is coming from the National Health Service (NHS).

Conclusion and discussion

Both examples show that the policy and practice of ICT-supported integration continues to represent a significant challenge. Although the notion of integrated care underpinned by ICT-enabled information sharing is persuasive, it has limitations in practice. The notion of an ‘open systems’ approach is proposed as an alternative way of improving communication and coordination across the domains of health and social care.

Background

E-health is increasingly valued for supporting: 1) access to quality health care services for all citizens; 2) information flow and exchange; 3) integrated health care services and 4) interprofessional collaboration. Nevertheless, several questions remain on the factors allowing an optimal integration of e-health in health care policies, organisations and practices. An evidence-based integrated strategy would maximise the efficacy and efficiency of e-health implementation. However, decisions regarding e-health applications are usually not evidence-based, which can lead to a sub-optimal use of these technologies. This study aims at understanding factors influencing the application of scientific knowledge for an optimal implementation of e-health in the health care system.

Methods

A three-year multi-method study is being conducted in the Province of Quebec (Canada). Decision-making at each decisional level (political, organisational and clinical) are analysed based on specific approaches. At the political level, critical incidents analysis is being used. This method will identify how decisions regarding the implementation of e-health could be influenced or not by scientific knowledge. Then, interviews with key-decision-makers will look at how knowledge was actually used to support their decisions, and what factors influenced its use. At the organisational level, e-health projects are being analysed as case studies in order to explore the use of scientific knowledge to support decision-making during the implementation of the technology. Interviews with promoters, managers and clinicians will be carried out in order to identify factors influencing the production and application of scientific knowledge. At the clinical level, questionnaires are being distributed to clinicians involved in e-health projects in order to analyse factors influencing knowledge application in their decision-making. Finally, a triangulation of the results will be done using mixed methodologies to allow a transversal analysis of the results at each of the decisional levels.

Results

This study will identify factors influencing the use of scientific evidence and other types of knowledge by decision-makers involved in planning, financing, implementing and evaluating e-health projects.

Conclusion

These results will be highly relevant to inform decision-makers who wish to optimise the implementation of e-health in the Quebec health care system. This study is extremely relevant given the context of major transformations in the health care system where e-health becomes a must.

An essential characteristic of advanced practice nurses is the use of theory in practice. Clinical nurse specialists apply theory in providing or directing patient care, in their work as consultants to staff nurses, and as leaders influencing and facilitating system change. Knowledge of technology and pharmacology has far outpaced knowledge of how to facilitate health behavior change, and new theories are needed to better understand how practitioners can facilitate health behavior change. In this article, the Integrated Theory of Health Behavior Change is described, and an example of its use as foundation to intervention development is presented. The Integrated Theory of Health Behavior Change suggests that health behavior change can be enhanced by fostering knowledge and beliefs, increasing self-regulation skills and abilities, and enhancing social facilitation. Engagement in self-management behaviors is seen as the proximal outcome influencing the long-term distal outcome of improved health status. Person-centered interventions are directed to increasing knowledge and beliefs, self-regulation skills and abilities, and social facilitation. Using a theoretical framework improves clinical nurse specialist practice by focusing assessments, directing the use of best-practice interventions, and improving patient outcomes. Using theory fosters improved communication with other disciplines and enhances the management of complex clinical conditions by providing holistic, comprehensive care.