Related Articles

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer of unknown etiology that develops on sun-exposed areas in individuals who are over 50 or immunosuppressed. DNA from a new polyomavirus, MCPyV, was recently shown to be clonally integrated into the host genome in several MCC cases. In this issue, Becker et al. show in a larger study that MCPyV DNA can be isolated from 85% of primary European MCC specimens and their metastases, while Gerneski et al. present data suggesting that the percentage of Australian MCC cases containing MCPyV may be lower than in North American cases. These reports strengthen the possibility that MCPyV may be etiologically involved in at least some cases of MCC.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a common infectious agent that is likely involved in the etiology of most Merkel cell carcinomas (MCCs). Serum antibodies recognizing the MCPyV capsid protein, VP1, are detectable at high titer in nearly all MCC patients, and remain stable over time. Although antibodies to the viral capsid indicate prior MCPyV infection, they provide limited clinical insight into MCC because they are also detected in more than half of the general population. We investigated whether antibodies recognizing MCPyV large and small tumor-associated antigens (T-Ags) would be more specifically associated with MCC. Among 530 population control subjects, these antibodies were present in only 0.9% and were of low titer. In contrast, among 205 MCC cases, 40.5% had serum IgG antibodies that recognize a portion of T-Ag shared between small and large T-Ags. Among cases, titers of T-Ag antibodies fell rapidly (approximately 8 fold/year) in patients whose cancer did not recur, while they rose rapidly in those with progressive disease. Importantly, in several patients who developed metastases, the rise in T-Ag titer preceded clinical detection of disease spread. These results suggest that antibodies recognizing T-Ag are relatively specifically associated with MCC, do not effectively protect against disease progression, and may serve as a clinically useful indicator of disease status.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a relatively uncommon but highly lethal form of skin cancer. A majority of MCC tumors carry DNA sequences derived from a newly identified virus called Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV or MCPyV), a candidate etiologic agent underlying the development of MCC. To further investigate the role of MCV infection in the development of MCC, we developed a reporter vector-based neutralization assay to quantitate MCV-specific serum antibody responses in human subjects. Our results showed that 21 MCC patients whose tumors harbored MCV DNA all displayed vigorous MCV-specific antibody responses. Although 88% (42/48) of adult subjects without MCC were MCV seropositive, the geometric mean titer of the control group was 59-fold lower than the MCC patient group (p<0.0001). Only 4% (2/48) of control subjects displayed neutralizing titers greater than the mean titer of the MCV-positive MCC patient population. MCC tumors were found not to express detectable amounts of MCV VP1 capsid protein, suggesting that the strong humoral responses observed in MCC patients were primed by an unusually immunogenic MCV infection, and not by viral antigen expressed by the MCC tumor itself. The occurrence of highly immunogenic MCV infection in MCC patients is unlikely to reflect a failure to control polyomavirus infections in general, as seroreactivity to BK polyomavirus was similar among MCC patients and control subjects. The results support the concept that MCV infection is a causative factor in the development of most cases of MCC. Although MCC tumorigenesis can evidently proceed in the face of effective MCV-specific antibody responses, a small pilot animal immunization study revealed that a candidate vaccine based on MCV virus-like particles (VLPs) elicits antibody responses that robustly neutralize MCV reporter vectors in vitro. This suggests that a VLP-based vaccine could be effective for preventing the initial establishment of MCV infection.

Author Summary

For more than 50 years it has been known that some polyomavirus types can induce cancer in experimental animals. However, associations between the various polyomaviruses known to chronically infect most humans and the development of cancer have been difficult to uncover. Last year, DNA from a new human polyomavirus, called Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV), was found embedded in an uncommon form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma. Emerging evidence indicates that most adults display detectable immune responses to MCV, suggesting that most individuals eventually become infected with the virus. In this study, we investigate antibodies that directly bind the protein coat of MCV, thereby obstructing its ability to penetrate cultured cells. We found that the magnitude of antibody responses against MCV varies dramatically among normal adults. Interestingly, patients suffering from MCV-associated Merkel cell carcinoma display uniformly strong antibody responses against the virus. This suggests that the development of Merkel cell carcinoma is preceded by an unusually robust MCV infection. It is currently unclear whether MCV infection may also be associated with additional diseases aside from Merkel cell carcinoma. Quantitation of immune responsiveness to the virus, using techniques reported here, could help identify such links.

Background

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) has been detected in approximately 75% of patients with the rare skin cancer Merkel cell carcinoma. We investigated the prevalence of antibodies against MCPyV in the general population and the association between these antibodies and Merkel cell carcinoma.

Methods

Multiplex antibody-binding assays were used to assess levels of antibodies against polyomaviruses in plasma. MCPyV VP1 antibody levels were determined in plasma from 41 patients with Merkel cell carcinoma and 76 matched control subjects. MCPyV DNA was detected in tumor tissue specimens by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Seroprevalence of polyomavirus-specific antibodies was determined in 451 control subjects. MCPyV strain–specific antibody recognition was investigated by replacing coding sequences from MCPyV strain 350 with those from MCPyV strain w162.

Results

We found that 36 (88%) of 41 patients with Merkel cell carcinoma carried antibodies against VP1 from MCPyV w162 compared with 40 (53%) of the 76 control subjects (odds ratio adjusted for age and sex = 6.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.3 to 18.8). MCPyV DNA was detectable in 24 (77%) of the 31 Merkel cell carcinoma tumors available, with 22 (92%) of these 24 patients also carrying antibodies against MCPyV. Among 451 control subjects from the general population, prevalence of antibodies against human polyomaviruses was 92% (95% CI = 89% to 94%) for BK virus, 45% (95% CI = 40% to 50%) for JC virus, 98% (95% CI = 96% to 99%) for WU polyomavirus, 90% (95% CI = 87% to 93%) for KI polyomavirus, and 59% (95% CI = 55% to 64%) for MCPyV. Few case patients had reactivity against MCPyV strain 350; however, indistinguishable reactivities were found with VP1 from strain 350 carrying a double mutation (residues 288 and 316) and VP1 from strain w162.

Conclusion

Infection with MCPyV is common in the general population. MCPyV, but not other human polyomaviruses, appears to be associated with Merkel cell carcinoma.

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) is associated with Merkel Cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare, aggressive skin cancer with neuroendocrine features. The causal role of MCPyV is highly suggested by monoclonal integration of its genome and expression of the viral large T (LT) antigen in MCC cells. We investigated and characterized MCPyV molecular features in MCC, respiratory, urine and blood samples from 33 patients by quantitative PCR, sequencing and detection of integrated viral DNA. We examined associations between either MCPyV viral load in primary MCC or MCPyV DNAemia and survival. Results were interpreted with respect to the viral molecular signature in each compartment. Patients with MCC containing more than 1 viral genome copy per cell had a longer period in complete remission than patients with less than 1 copy per cell (34 vs 10 months, P = 0.037). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) contained MCPyV more frequently in patients sampled with disease than in patients in complete remission (60% vs 11%, P = 0.00083). Moreover, the detection of MCPyV in at least one PBMC sample during follow-up was associated with a shorter overall survival (P = 0.003). Sequencing of viral DNA from MCC and non MCC samples characterized common single nucleotide polymorphisms defining 8 patient specific strains. However, specific molecular signatures truncating MCPyV LT were observed in 8/12 MCC cases but not in respiratory and urinary samples from 15 patients. New integration sites were identified in 4 MCC cases. Finally, mutated-integrated forms of MCPyV were detected in PBMC of two patients with disseminated MCC disease, indicating circulation of metastatic cells. We conclude that MCPyV molecular features in primary MCC tumour and PBMC may help to predict the course of the disease.

Author Summary

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a recently discovered virus highly associated with a rare skin cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). The causal role of MCPyV in cancer is suggested by integration of viral sequences into the cell genome and by a specific molecular signature. We looked for and compared molecular species of MCPyV in tumour and non tumour samples of 33 MCC patients. We showed that a tumour viral load greater than 1 copy per cell was associated with a better outcome, and that detection of the virus in blood but not in urine correlated with a shorter overall survival. A tumour–specific molecular signature was found in the blood of two patients with metastatic disease, but did not occur in their respiratory nor urine samples. We propose that molecular analysis of MCPyV in tumour and blood be used as a biomarker of infection and cancer progression in MCC patients.

Introduction

Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare malignant cutaneous neoplasm that is locally invasive and frequently metastasizes to lymph nodes, liver, lungs, bone and brain. The incidence of Merkel cell carcinoma has increased in the past three decades.

Case presentation

A 65-year-old Caucasian man presented with a sudden onset of severe headache and a three-month history of balance disturbance. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a large meningeal metastasis. The radiologic workup showed retroperitoneal and inguinal lymph node metastases. Biopsy of the inguinal lymph nodes showed metastases of Merkel cell carcinoma. Biopsy from three different suspected skin lesions revealed no Merkel cell carcinoma, and the primary site of Merkel cell carcinoma remained unknown. Leptomeningeal metastases, new axillary lymph node metastases, and intraspinal (epidural and intradural) metastases were detected within six, seven and eight months, respectively, from the start of symptoms despite treating the intracranial metastasis with gamma knife and the abdominal metastases with surgical dissection and external radiotherapy. This indicates the aggressive nature of the disease.

Conclusion

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in the literature of an intracranial meningeal metastasis of Merkel cell carcinoma treated with gamma knife and of intraspinal intradural metastases of Merkel cell carcinoma. Despite good initial response to radiotherapy, recurrence and occurrence of new metastases are common in Merkel cell carcinoma.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer with poorly characterized genetics. We performed high-resolution comparative genomic hybridization on 25 MCC specimens using a high-density oligonucleotide microarray. Tumors frequently carried extra copies of chromosomes 1, 3q, 5p, and 6 and lost chromosomes 3p, 4, 5q, 7, 10 and 13. MCC tumors with less genomic aberration were associated with improved survival (p=0.04). Tumors from 13 of 22 MCC patients had detectable Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA, and these tumors had fewer genomic deletions. Three regions of genomic alteration were of particular interest: a deletion of 5q12-21 occurred in 26% of tumors, a deletion of 13q14-21 was recurrent in 26% of tumors and contains the well-characterized tumor suppressor RB1, and a novel focal amplification at 1p34 was present in 39% of tumors and centers on L-Myc (MYCL1). L-Myc is related to the c-Myc proto-oncogene, has transforming activity, and is amplified in the closely related small cell lung cancer. Normal skin showed no L-Myc expression, while 4/4 MCC specimens tested expressed L-Myc RNA in relative proportion to the DNA copy number gain. These findings suggest several genes that may contribute to MCC pathogenesis, most notably L-Myc.

Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MCC) is a neoplasm thought to originate from the neuroendocrine Merkel cells of the skin. While the prevalence of MCC has been increasing, treatments for this disease remain limited due to a paucity of information regarding MCC biology. We have found that the endocytic oncoprotein Huntingtin interacting protein 1 (HIP1) is expressed at high levels in close to 90% of MCC tumors and serves as a more reliable histological cytoplasmic stain than the gold standard, cytokeratin 20 (CK20). Furthermore, high anti-HIP1 antibody reactivity in the sera of a cohort of MCC patients predicts the presence of metastases. Another protein that is frequently expressed at high levels in MCC tumors is the stem cell factor (SCF) receptor tyrosine kinase, c-Kit. In working towards an understanding of how HIP1 might contribute to MCC tumorigenesis, we have discovered that HIP1 interacts with SCF activated c-Kit. These data not only identify HIP1 as a molecular marker for management of MCC patients but also show that HIP1 interacts with and slows the degradation of c-Kit.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) was recently discovered in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a clinically and pathologically heterogeneous malignancy of dermal neuroendocrine cells. To investigate this heterogeneity, we developed a tissue microarray (TMA) to characterize immunohistochemical staining of candidate tumor cell proteins and a quantitative PCR assay to detect MCPyV and measure viral loads. MCPyV was detected in 19 of 23 (74%) primary MCC tumors, but 8 of these had less than 1 viral copy per 300 cells. Viral abundance of 0.06–1.2viral copies/cell was directly related to presence of retinoblastoma gene product (pRb) and terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase (TdT) by immunohistochemical staining (P≤0.003). Higher viral abundance tumors tended to be associated with less p53 expression, younger age at diagnosis, and longer survival (P≤0.08). These data suggest that MCC may arise through different oncogenic pathways, including ones independent of pRb and MCPyV.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive skin cancer involving Merkel cells. Recently, a new human polyomavirus was implicated in MCC, being present in 80% of the samples analyzed. In virus-positive MCC, the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is clonally integrated into the patients DNA, and carries mutations in its large T antigen, leading to a truncated protein. In non-symptomatic tissue MCPyV can reside at very low levels. MCC is also associated with older age, immunosuppression and sun exposure. However, the link with solar exposure remains unknown, as the precise mechanism and steps involved between time of infection by MCPyV and the development of MCC. We thus investigated the potential impact of solar simulated radiation (SSR) on MCPyV transcriptional activity. We screened skin samples of 20 healthy patients enrolled in a photodermatological protocol based on in vivo-administered 2 and 4 J/cm2 SSR. Two patients were infected with two new variants of MCPyV, present in their episomal form and RT-QPCR analyses on SSR-irradiated skin samples showed a specific and unique dose-dependent increase of MCPyV small t antigen transcript. A luciferase based in vitro assay confirmed that small t promoter is indeed UV-inducible. These findings demonstrate that solar radiation has an impact on MCPyV mRNA levels that may explain the association between MCC and solar exposure.

Background

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is present in approximately 80% of human Merkel cell carcinomas (MCCs). A previous in silico prediction suggested MCPyV encodes a microRNA (miRNA) that may regulate cellular and viral genes.

Objectives

To determine the presence and prevalence of a putative MCPyV-encoded miRNA in human MCC tumors.

Study Design

Over 30 million small RNAs from 7 cryopreserved MCC tumors and 1 perilesional sample were sequenced. 45 additional MCC tumors were examined for expression of an MCPyV-encoded mature miRNA by reverse transcription real-time PCR.

Results

An MCPyV-encoded mature miRNA, “MCV-miR-M1-5p”, was detected by direct sequencing in 2 of 3 MCPyV-positive MCC tumors. Although a precursor miRNA, MCV-miR-M1, had been predicted in silico and studied in vitro by Seo et al., no MCPyV-encoded miRNAs have been directly detected in human tissues. Importantly, the mature sequence of MCV-miR-M1 found in vivo was identical in all 79 reads obtained but differed from the in silico predicted mature miRNA by a 2-nucleotide shift, resulting in a distinct seed region and a different set of predicted target genes. This mature miRNA was detected by real-time PCR in 50% of MCPyV-positive MCCs (n=38) and in 0% of MCPyV-negative MCCs (n=13).

Conclusions

MCV-miR-M1-5p is expressed at low levels in 50% of MCPyV-positive MCCs. This virus-encoded miRNA is predicted to target genes that may play a role in promoting immune evasion and regulating viral DNA replication.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) is a newly-discovered human tumor virus found in ∼80% of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). The rate of MCV infection among persons without MCC is unknown. We developed a MCV virus-like particle (VLP) enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA) that does not cross-react with human BK or murine polyomaviruses. Peptide mapping of the MCV VP1 gene and immunoblotting with denatured MCV VLP are less sensitive than the MCV EIA in detecting MCV antibodies suggesting antibody reactivity in this assay primarily targets conformational but not linear epitopes. Among MCC patients, all 21 (100%) patients tested with MCV-positive tumors had high serum MCV IgG but not high MCV IgM levels. Only 3 of 6 (50%) MCC patients with MCV-negative tumors were positive for MCV antibodies. Sera from most adults, including 107 of 166 (64%) blood donors, 63 of 100 (63%) commercial donors and 37 of 50 (74%) systemic lupus erythematosus patients, show evidence for prior MCV exposure. Age-specific MCV prevalence was determined by examining a cross-sectional distribution of 150 Langerhans cell histiocytosis (an unrelated neoplasm) patient sera. MCV prevalence increases from 50% among children age 15 years or younger to 80% among persons older than 50 years. We did not find evidence for vertical transmission among infants. Although past exposure to MCV is common among all adult groups, MCC patients have a markedly elevated MCV IgG response compared with control patients. Our study demonstrates that MCV is a widespread but previously unrecognized human infection.

Background

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a relatively new addition to the expanding category of oncovirus-induced cancers. Although still comparably rare, the number of cases has risen dramatically in recent years. Further complicating this trend is that MCC is an extremely aggressive neoplasm with poor patient prognosis and limited treatment options for advanced disease. The causative agent of MCC has been identified as the merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). The MCPyV-encoded large T (LT) antigen is an oncoprotein that is theorized to be essential for virus-mediated tumorigenesis and is therefore, an excellent MCC antigen for the generation of antitumor immune responses. As a foreign antigen, the LT oncoprotein avoids the obstacle of immune tolerance, which normally impedes the development of antitumor immunity. Ergo, it is an excellent target for anti-MCC immunotherapy. Since tumor-specific CD8+ T cells lead to better prognosis for MCC and numerous other cancers, we have generated a DNA vaccine that is capable of eliciting LT-specific CD8+ T cells. The DNA vaccine (pcDNA3-CRT/LT) encodes the LT antigen linked to a damage-associated molecular pattern, calreticulin (CRT), as it has been demonstrated that the linkage of CRT to antigens promotes the induction of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.

Results

The present study shows that DNA vaccine-induced generation of LT-specific CD8+ T cells is augmented by linking CRT to the LT antigen. This is relevant since the therapeutic effects of the pcDNA3-CRT/LT DNA vaccine is mediated by LT-specific CD8+ T cells. Mice vaccinated with the DNA vaccine produced demonstrably more LT-specific CD8+ T cells. The DNA vaccine was also able to confer LT-specific CD8+ T cell-mediated protective and therapeutic effects to prolong the survival of mice with LT-expressing tumors. In the interest of determining the LT epitope which most MCC-specific CD8+ T cells recognize, we identified the amino acid sequence of the immunodominant LT epitope as aa19-27 (IAPNCYGNI) and found that it is H-2kb-restricted.

Conclusion

The results of this study can facilitate the development of other modes of MCC treatment such as peptide-based vaccines and adoptive transfer of LT-specific CD8+ T cells. Likewise, the MCC DNA vaccine has great potential for clinical translation as the immunologic specificity is high and the treatment strategy can be exported to address other virus-induced tumors.

Merkel cell carcinoma is an aggressive neoplasm of the skin that shows frequent lymph node metastases, but has only rarely been reported in the bone marrow. Herein we report a case of a 64-year-old male with a history of plasma cell myeloma and recent skin diagnosis of Merkel cell carcinoma who presented for a routine follow-up bone marrow to assess his myeloma. The biopsy showed persistent plasma cell myeloma, trilineage dysplasia, and clusters of neuroendocrine cells consistent with metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma. Discussion of this case, a review of metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma, and identification of clinical settings in which staging bone marrow biopsy may be warranted are presented.

Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare, but highly malignant tumor of the skin with high rates of metastasis and poor survival. Its incidence rate rises and is currently about 0.6/100000/year. Clinical differential diagnoses include basal cell carcinoma, cyst, amelanotic melanoma, lymphoma and atypical fibroxanthoma. In this review article clinical, histopathological and immunhistochemical features of Merkel cell carcinoma are reported. In addition, the role of Merkel cell polyomavirus is discussed.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), associated with Merkel cell carcinoma, was detected in 27 of 635 nasopharyngeal aspirate samples by real-time PCR. MCPyV was more commonly found in adults than in children. Presence in the upper respiratory tract may be a general property of human PyVs.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a highly aggressive skin tumour with increasing incidence, is associated with the newly discovered Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Studies on MCC and MCPyV as well as other risk factors have significantly increased our knowledge of MCC pathogenesis, but the cells of origin, which could be important targets in future therapies, are still unknown. Merkel cells (MCs), the neuroendocrine cells of the skin, were believed to be at the origin of MCC due to their phenotypic similarities. However, for several reasons, for example, heterogeneous differentiation of MCCs and postmitotic character of MCs, it is not very likely that MCC develops from differentiated MCs. Skin stem cells, probably from the epidermal lineage, are more likely to be cells of origin in MCC. Future studies will have to address these questions more directly in order to identify the physiological cells which are transformed to MCC cells.

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCV or MCPyV) was recently discovered in an aggressive form of skin cancer known as Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Integration of MCV DNA into the host genome likely contributes to the development of MCC in humans. MCV infection is common and many healthy people shed MCV virions from the surface of their skin. MCV DNA has also been detected in samples from a variety of other tissues. Although MCC tumors serve as a record that MCV can infect the Merkel cell lineage, the true tissue tropism and natural reservoirs of MCV infection in the host are not known. In an effort to gain insight into the tissue tropism of MCV, and to possibly identify cellular factors responsible for mediating infectious entry of the virus, the infection potential of human cells derived from a variety of tissues was evaluated. MCV gene transfer vectors (pseudoviruses) carrying reporter plasmid DNA encoding GFP or luciferase genes were used to transduce keratinocytes and melanocytes, as well as lines derived from MCC tumors and the NCI-60 panel of human tumor cell lines. MCV transduction was compared to transduction with pseudoviruses based on the better-studied human BK polyomavirus (BKV). The efficiency of MCV and BKV transduction of various cell types occasionally overlapped, but often differed greatly, and no clear tissue type preference emerged. Application of native MCV virions to a subset of highly transducible cell types suggested that the lines do not support robust replication of MCV, consistent with recent proposals that the MCV late phase may be governed by cellular differentiation in vivo. The availability of carefully curated gene expression data for the NCI-60 panel should make the MCV and BKV transduction data for these lines a useful reference for future studies aimed at elucidation of the infectious entry pathways of these viruses.

Background

Merkel cell carcinoma is a polyomavirus-associated cancer that is strongly linked with T lymphocyte immune suppression in epidemiologic studies. CD8+ T cell infiltration into MCC tumors (intratumoral) has recently been shown to be strongly predictive of improved survival. In contrast, the presence of CD8+ T cells at the border of the tumor (peritumoral) had no independent prognostic value. Spontaneous regression has been reported for MCC approximately one thousand times more often than would be expected given the frequency of this cancer. Many of these events began shortly after biopsy, and in some cases lymphocytic infiltration was described.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To determine whether CD8+ lymphocyte infiltration in MCC tumors is commonly altered by biopsy.33 MCC patients who had microscopic confirmation of MCC on both an initial biopsy and a re-excision specimen were included in this study. Intratumoral and peritumoral CD8 lymphocyte infiltration was quantitated using immunohistochemistry and compared using the paired t-test in biopsy versus re-excision samples. There was a trend toward increased CD8 infiltration after biopsy in a peritumoral (‘stalled’) pattern (p = 0.08), however, biopsy was not associated with a significant increase in CD8 T cells in the clinically more important intratumoral location (p = 0.58).

Conclusions/Significance

The initial diagnostic biopsy for MCC does not commonly alter intratumoral CD8+ T cell infiltration, suggesting it does not directly induce immunologic recognition of this cancer. Because CD8 infiltration is typically stable after biopsy, this parameter may be useful to assess the efficacy of future immune therapies for this virus-associated, immunogenic, often-lethal cancer.

Human polyomaviruses are known to cause persistent or latent infections, which are reactivated under immunosuppression. Polyomaviruses have been found to immortalize cell lines and to possess oncogenic properties. Moreover, the recently discovered Merkel cell polyomavirus shows a strong association with human Merkel cell carcinomas. Another novel human polyomavirus, WU polyomavirus (WUPyV), has been identified in respiratory specimens from patients with acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI). WUPyV has been proposed to be a pathogen in ARTI in early life and immunocompromised individuals, but so far its role as a causative agent of respiratory disease remains controversial.

The objective of our study was to determine the prevalence of WUPyV infections in adult hospitalized patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and to establish its potential clinical relevance by comparison to patients with stable COPD hospitalized for other reasons than acute exacerbation of COPD (AE-COPD).

A total of 378 respiratory specimens, each 189 induced sputum and nasal lavage samples from 189 patients, who had been recruited in a prospective 2:1 ratio case-control set-up between 1999 and 2003, were evaluated for the presence of WUPyV DNA by real-time PCR.

In the present study we could not detect WUPyV DNA in 378 respiratory specimens from 189 adult hospitalized patients with AE-COPD and stable COPD in four consecutive years.

Persistence of viral replication or reactivation of latent WUPyV infection did not occur. WUPyV may not play a major role in adult immunocompetent patients with AE-COPD and stable COPD.

A human polyomavirus was recently discovered in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) specimens. The Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) genome undergoes clonal integration into the host cell chromosomes of MCC tumors and expresses small T antigen and truncated large T antigen. Previous studies have consistently reported that MCPyV can be detected in approximately 80% of all MCC tumors. We sought to increase the sensitivity of detection of MCPyV in MCC by developing antibodies capable of detecting large T antigen by immunohistochemistry. In addition, we expanded the repertoire of quantitative PCR primers specific for MCPyV to improve the detection of viral DNA in MCC. Here we report that a novel monoclonal antibody detected MCPyV large T antigen expression in 56 of 58 (97%) unique MCC tumors. PCR analysis specifically detected viral DNA in all 60 unique MCC tumors tested. We also detected inactivating point substitution mutations of TP53 in the two MCC specimens that lacked large T antigen expression and in only 1 of 56 tumors positive for large T antigen. These results indicate that MCPyV is present in MCC tumors more frequently than previously reported and that mutations in TP53 tend to occur in MCC tumors that fail to express MCPyV large T antigen.

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive human skin cancer that typically affects elderly and immunosuppressed individuals, a feature suggestive of an infectious origin. We studied MCC samples by digital transcriptome subtraction and detected a fusion transcript between a previously undescribed virus T antigen and a human receptor tyrosine phosphatase. Further investigation led to identification and sequence analysis of the 5387-base-pair genome of a previously unknown polyomavirus that we call Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV or MCPyV). MCV sequences were detected in 8 of 10 (80%) MCC tumors but only 5 of 59 (8%) control tissues from various body sites and 4 of 25 (16%) control skin tissues. In six of eight MCV-positive MCCs, viral DNA was integrated within the tumor genome in a clonal pattern, suggesting that MCV infection and integration preceded clonal expansion of the tumor cells. Thus, MCV may be a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of MCC.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) is a recently discovered human polyomavirus causing the majority of human Merkel cell carcinomas. We mapped a 71-bp minimal MCV replication core origin sufficient for initiating eukaryotic DNA replication in the presence of wild-type MCV large T protein (LT). The origin includes a poly(T)-rich tract and eight variably oriented, GAGGC-like pentanucleotide sequences (PS) that serve as LT recognition sites. Mutation analysis shows that only four of the eight PS are required for origin replication. A single point mutation in one origin PS from a naturally occurring, tumor-derived virus reduces LT assembly on the origin and eliminates viral DNA replication. Tumor-derived LT having mutations truncating either the origin-binding domain or the helicase domain also prevent LT-origin assembly. Optimal MCV replication requires coexpression of MCV small T protein (sT), together with LT. An intact DnaJ domain on the LT is required for replication but is dispensable on the sT. In contrast, PP2A targeting by sT is required for enhanced replication. The MCV origin provides a novel model for eukaryotic replication from a defined DNA element and illustrates the selective pressure within tumors to abrogate independent MCV replication.

Introduction

Melanoma and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) are both aggressive skin malignancies associated with immunosuppression and possible UV exposure. Both tumors get similar surgical treatment; however, MCC is a relatively rare tumor in which less is known about prognosis and clinical behavior.

Methods

The California Cancer Registry (CCR), a population-based registry, was reviewed from the years 1988–2003. Merkel cell carcinoma and melanoma were compared with relation to gender, age, ethnicity, disease stage, site, and survival.

Results

A total of 113,187 cases of melanoma and 1,878 cases of MCC were identified in the CCR. Though both cancers are more common in men than in women, MCC had a higher incidence in men than melanoma (63% vs 57% p < 0.005). MCC occurs in the more elderly, with 73.6% of cases occurring in people over 70 years. In contrast, 69% of melanoma cases occurred in people younger than 70 years (p < 0.005). MCC shows a predilection for the head and neck compared to melanoma (47% vs 25.8%) Additionally, melanoma occurs more frequently on the trunk than MCC (30% vs 8.7%). Finally, the 10-year cumulative survival is lower for MCC than for melanoma (17.7% vs 61.3%, p < 0.005).

Conclusion

Many clinicians assume MCC and melanoma behave similarly. However, MCC occurs in an older population, more frequently on the head and neck, in a higher percentage of men. Additionally, MCC has a higher rate of regional metastasis and thus may have more of a benefit from regional staging procedures. Overall, MCC has a worse prognosis.

Merkel cell carcinoma is a very rare and aggressive neoplasm. Due to its rarity, therapeutic guidelines are not well established, especially for regionally advanced disease. Articles in English, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish from the last 20 years were identified in MEDLINE and reviewed. The key word “Merkel” was used for the search, relevant articles were selected, and their references were examined. The most important articles related to epidemiology, genesis and treatment were reviewed. The incidence of Merkel cell carcinoma is increasing due to the advancing age of the population, higher rates of sun exposure and an increasing number of immunocompromised individuals. With regard to etiology, the recently described Merkel Cell polyomavirus is thought to play a role. Either local or regional surgical intervention remains the standard of care, but adjuvant radiotherapy or radiotherapy as a primary treatment have been discussed as reasonable therapeutic options. An update on this rare neoplasia is essential because of its increasing incidence and changing treatment options.