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Background.

Recent European studies suggest that vitamin D deficiency may be associated with increased odds of cognitive impairment in older persons, although findings from the United States are equivocal. Our objective was to investigate the association between vitamin D deficiency and cognitive impairment in the elderly U.S. population.

Methods.

Three thousand and three hundred twenty-five adults aged 65 years or more completed cognitive assessments, medical examinations, and physical performance measures and provided blood samples in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a nationally representative cross-sectional study of the U.S. noninstitutionalized population. We determined whether low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) were associated with increased odds of cognitive impairment using logistic regression models. Cognitive impairment was assessed using measures of immediate and delayed verbal memory, orientation, and attention (impairment was defined as the worst 10% of the distribution of combined scores).

Results.

The multivariate adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence interval) of cognitive impairment in participants who were 25(OH)D insufficient (≥50 < 75 nmol/L), deficient (≥25 < 50 nmol/L), and severely deficient (<25 nmol/L) in comparison with those sufficient (≥75 nmol/L) were 0.9 (0.6–1.3), 1.4 (1.0–2.1), and 3.9 (1.5–10.4), respectively (p for linear trend = .02). Log-transformed levels of 25(OH)D were also significantly associated with the odds of cognitive impairment (p = .02).

Conclusions.

These findings suggest that vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased odds of cognitive impairment in the elderly U.S. population. Further exploration of a possible causal relationship between vitamin D deficiency and cognitive impairment is warranted.

Objectives

Forearm fractures account for a significant proportion of childhood injuries and appear to be increasing in incidence. Poor vitamin D status increases overall fracture risk in infants with rickets and adults with osteoporosis. Children with vitamin D insufficiency (serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D level < 20 ng/mL) have decreased bone mineral density (BMD) compared to children with normal vitamin D status. The relationship between vitamin D status and childhood forearm fracture has not been investigated.

Methods

This prospective study is enrolling African American children, ages 5–9 years, with a forearm fracture. Bone health evaluation includes measurement of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D level and BMD by dual energy xray absorptiometry (DXA) scan. Univariable analyses are used to test the associations between fracture status and the independent variables serum vitamin D level and BMD.

Results

Vitamin D levels are available for seventeen cases. The mean (± SD) 25-hydroxy vitamin D level is 20.1 (± 7.3) ng/mL with a range of 10–38 ng/mL. The mean of this group is at the cutpoint for vitamin D insufficiency. Ten cases (59%) were vitamin D insufficient. DXA scan results for these patients are consistent with normal bony mineralization for age.

Conclusions

A significant proportion of African American children with fractures in our study are vitamin D insufficient. Analysis of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels and BMD in additional cases and controls will determine the significance of these findings.

Clinical Relevance

Vitamin D insufficiency may play a previously unrecognized role in childhood fractures. Strong consideration should be given to routine vitamin D testing in African American children with forearm fractures.

Osteoporosis is associated with increased morbidity, mortality and significant economic and health costs. Vitamin D is a secosteriod hormone essential for calcium absorption and bone mineralization which is positively associated with bone mineral density [BMD]. It is well-established that prolonged and severe vitamin D deficiency leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Sub-optimal vitamin D status has been reported in many populations but it is a particular concern in older people; thus there is clearly a need for effective strategies to optimise bone health. A number of recent studies have suggested that the role of vitamin D in preventing fractures may be via its mediating effects on muscle function (a defect in muscle function is one of the classical signs of rickets) and inflammation. Studies have demonstrated that vitamin D supplementation can improve muscle strength which in turn contributes to a decrease in incidence of falls, one of the largest contributors to fracture incidence. Osteoporosis is often considered to be an inflammatory condition and pro-inflammatory cytokines have been associated with increased bone metabolism. The immunoregulatory mechanisms of vitamin D may thus modulate the effect of these cytokines on bone health and subsequent fracture risk. Vitamin D, therefore, may influence fracture risk via a number of different mechanisms.

Vitamin D deficiency, which classically manifests as bone disease (either rickets or osteomalacia), is characterized by impaired bone mineralization. More recently, the term vitamin D insufficiency has been used to describe low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D that may be associated with other disease outcomes. Reliance on a single cutoff value to define vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency is problematic because of the wide individual variability of the functional effects of vitamin D and interaction with calcium intakes. In adults, vitamin D supplementation reduces the risk of fractures and falls. The evidence for other purported beneficial effects of vitamin D is primarily based on observational studies. We selected studies with the strongest level of evidence for clinical decision making related to vitamin D and health outcomes from our personal libraries of the vitamin D literature and from a search of the PubMed database using the term vitamin D in combination with the following terms related to the potential nonskeletal benefits of vitamin D: mortality, cardiovascular, diabetes mellitus, cancer, multiple sclerosis, allergy, asthma, infection, depression, psychiatric, and pain. Conclusive demonstration of these benefits awaits the outcome of controlled clinical trials.

Introduction

Disparities within ethnic groups are generally ignored, but in evolving populations they may have implications for public health. We examined ethnic variation in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and bone mineral density (BMD) among Hispanic American men.

Methods

358 Hispanic males age 30–79 y were studied. Logistic regression models assessed variation in odds of vitamin D deficiency (<20 ng/mL) and low BMD (T-score<−1) by ethnicity, with and without adjustment for risk factors (age, smoking, occupation, physical activity, body mass index, and sunlight exposure).

Results

Vitamin D deficiency was most common among Puerto Rican (26%), compared with Dominican (21%), Central American (11%), and South American (9%) men. Percentages with low BMD were: South American (44%), Puerto Rican (34%), Dominican (29%), and Central American (23%). Adjustment for age and risk factors failed to account for Hispanic subgroup differences in vitamin D deficiency and low BMD. Population estimates indicate a substantial burden of low BMD and vitamin D deficiency among Hispanic men.

Conclusions

Our findings underscore the importance of examining the skeletal health of Hispanic subgroups, and suggest that a considerable number of Hispanic men may be at elevated risk of fracture and vitamin D deficiency.

BACKGROUND: More than one million Americans suffer osteoporotic fractures yearly, resulting in a marked increase in morbidity and mortality. Despite a decrease in bone mineral density with increasing age in all ethnic groups and both genders, preventative and therapeutics efforts in osteoporosis have been focused on caucasian and Asian women. This study assesses the osteoporosis screening practices and the frequency of low bone density in a primarily African-American population of older women. METHODS: Medical records of 252 women at risk for osteoporosis were reviewed for the diagnosis of osteoporosis, prior osteoporosis screening, prior breast cancer screening, and the use of calcium, vitamin D or estrogen. Subsequently, 128 women were assessed for risk factors for osteoporosis, and their bone mineral density was measured using a peripheral bone densitometer. RESULTS: Osteoporosis screening had been performed in 11.5% of the subjects. Of the women evaluated by peripheral bone densitometry, 44.5% of all women, 40.4% of African-American women, and 53.3% of caucasian women had abnormally low bone density measurements. The frequency of abnormal bone density increased with both increasing age and decreasing body mass index. CONCLUSIONS: Although few women in this population were previously screened for osteoporosis, low bone density occurred in African-American women at substantial rates. Increasing age and low body mass are important risk factors for low bone density in African-American women. Ethnicity should not be used as an exclusion criterion for screening for osteoporosis.

Executive Summary

This report from the Medical Advisory Secretariat (MAS) was intended to evaluate the clinical utility of vitamin D testing in average risk Canadians and in those with kidney disease. As a separate analysis, this report also includes a systematic literature review of the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in these two subgroups.

This evaluation did not set out to determine the serum vitamin D thresholds that might apply to non-bone health outcomes. For bone health outcomes, no high or moderate quality evidence could be found to support a target serum level above 50 nmol/L. Similarly, no high or moderate quality evidence could be found to support vitamin D’s effects in non-bone health outcomes, other than falls.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a lipid soluble vitamin that acts as a hormone. It stimulates intestinal calcium absorption and is important in maintaining adequate phosphate levels for bone mineralization, bone growth, and remodelling. It’s also believed to be involved in the regulation of cell growth proliferation and apoptosis (programmed cell death), as well as modulation of the immune system and other functions. Alone or in combination with calcium, Vitamin D has also been shown to reduce the risk of fractures in elderly men (≥ 65 years), postmenopausal women, and the risk of falls in community-dwelling seniors. However, in a comprehensive systematic review, inconsistent results were found concerning the effects of vitamin D in conditions such as cancer, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular disease. In fact, no high or moderate quality evidence could be found concerning the effects of vitamin D in such non-bone health outcomes. Given the uncertainties surrounding the effects of vitamin D in non-bone health related outcomes, it was decided that this evaluation should focus on falls and the effects of vitamin D in bone health and exclusively within average-risk individuals and patients with kidney disease.

Synthesis of vitamin D occurs naturally in the skin through exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation from sunlight, but it can also be obtained from dietary sources including fortified foods, and supplements. Foods rich in vitamin D include fatty fish, egg yolks, fish liver oil, and some types of mushrooms. Since it is usually difficult to obtain sufficient vitamin D from non-fortified foods, either due to low content or infrequent use, most vitamin D is obtained from fortified foods, exposure to sunlight, and supplements.

Clinical Need: Condition and Target Population

Vitamin D deficiency may lead to rickets in infants and osteomalacia in adults. Factors believed to be associated with vitamin D deficiency include:

darker skin pigmentation,

winter season,

living at higher latitudes,

skin coverage,

kidney disease,

malabsorption syndromes such as Crohn’s disease, cystic fibrosis, and

genetic factors.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at a higher risk of vitamin D deficiency due to either renal losses or decreased synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.

Health Canada currently recommends that, until the daily recommended intakes (DRI) for vitamin D are updated, Canada’s Food Guide (Eating Well with Canada’s Food Guide) should be followed with respect to vitamin D intake. Issued in 2007, the Guide recommends that Canadians consume two cups (500 ml) of fortified milk or fortified soy beverages daily in order to obtain a daily intake of 200 IU. In addition, men and women over the age of 50 should take 400 IU of vitamin D supplements daily. Additional recommendations were made for breastfed infants.

A Canadian survey evaluated the median vitamin D intake derived from diet alone (excluding supplements) among 35,000 Canadians, 10,900 of which were from Ontario. Among Ontarian males ages 9 and up, the median daily dietary vitamin D intake ranged between 196 IU and 272 IU per day. Among females, it varied from 152 IU to 196 IU per day. In boys and girls ages 1 to 3, the median daily dietary vitamin D intake was 248 IU, while among those 4 to 8 years it was 224 IU.

Vitamin D Testing

Two laboratory tests for vitamin D are available, 25-hydroxy vitamin D, referred to as 25(OH)D, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Vitamin D status is assessed by measuring the serum 25(OH)D levels, which can be assayed using radioimmunoassays, competitive protein-binding assays (CPBA), high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These may yield different results with inter-assay variation reaching up to 25% (at lower serum levels) and intra-assay variation reaching 10%.

The optimal serum concentration of vitamin D has not been established and it may change across different stages of life. Similarly, there is currently no consensus on target serum vitamin D levels. There does, however, appear to be a consensus on the definition of vitamin D deficiency at 25(OH)D < 25 nmol/l, which is based on the risk of diseases such as rickets and osteomalacia. Higher target serum levels have also been proposed based on subclinical endpoints such as parathyroid hormone (PTH). Therefore, in this report, two conservative target serum levels have been adopted, 25 nmol/L (based on the risk of rickets and osteomalacia), and 40 to 50 nmol/L (based on vitamin D’s interaction with PTH).

Ontario Context

Volume & Cost

The volume of vitamin D tests done in Ontario has been increasing over the past 5 years with a steep increase of 169,000 tests in 2007 to more than 393,400 tests in 2008. The number of tests continues to rise with the projected number of tests for 2009 exceeding 731,000. According to the Ontario Schedule of Benefits, the billing cost of each test is $51.7 for 25(OH)D (L606, 100 LMS units, $0.517/unit) and $77.6 for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (L605, 150 LMS units, $0.517/unit). Province wide, the total annual cost of vitamin D testing has increased from approximately $1.7M in 2004 to over $21.0M in 2008. The projected annual cost for 2009 is approximately $38.8M.

Evidence-Based Analysis

The objective of this report is to evaluate the clinical utility of vitamin D testing in the average risk population and in those with kidney disease. As a separate analysis, the report also sought to evaluate the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Canada. The specific research questions addressed were thus:

What is the clinical utility of vitamin D testing in the average risk population and in subjects with kidney disease?

What is the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in the average risk population in Canada?

What is the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in patients with kidney disease in Canada?

Clinical utility was defined as the ability to improve bone health outcomes with the focus on the average risk population (excluding those with osteoporosis) and patients with kidney disease.

Literature Search

A literature search was performed on July 17th, 2009 using OVID MEDLINE, MEDLINE In-Process and Other Non-Indexed Citations, EMBASE, the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), the Cochrane Library, and the International Agency for Health Technology Assessment (INAHTA) for studies published from January 1, 1998 until July 17th, 2009. Abstracts were reviewed by a single reviewer and, for those studies meeting the eligibility criteria, full-text articles were obtained. Reference lists were also examined for any additional relevant studies not identified through the search. Articles with unknown eligibility were reviewed with a second clinical epidemiologist, then a group of epidemiologists until consensus was established. The quality of evidence was assessed as high, moderate, low or very low according to GRADE methodology.

Observational studies that evaluated the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Canada in the population of interest were included based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria listed below. The baseline values were used in this report in the case of interventional studies that evaluated the effect of vitamin D intake on serum levels. Studies published in grey literature were included if no studies published in the peer-reviewed literature were identified for specific outcomes or subgroups.

Considering that vitamin D status may be affected by factors such as latitude, sun exposure, food fortification, among others, the search focused on prevalence studies published in Canada. In cases where no Canadian prevalence studies were identified, the decision was made to include studies from the United States, given the similar policies in vitamin D food fortification and recommended daily intake.

Inclusion Criteria

Studies published in English

Publications that reported the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Canada

Studies that included subjects from the general population or with kidney disease

Studies in children or adults

Studies published between January 1998 and July 17th 2009

Exclusion Criteria

Studies that included subjects defined according to a specific disease other than kidney disease

Letters, comments, and editorials

Studies that measured the serum vitamin D levels but did not report the percentage of subjects with serum levels below a given threshold

Outcomes of Interest

Prevalence of serum vitamin D less than 25 nmol/L

Prevalence of serum vitamin D less than 40 to 50 nmol/L

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D was the metabolite used to assess vitamin D status. Results from adult and children studies were reported separately. Subgroup analyses according to factors that affect serum vitamin D levels (e.g., seasonal effects, skin pigmentation, and vitamin D intake) were reported if enough information was provided in the studies

Quality of Evidence

The quality of the prevalence studies was based on the method of subject recruitment and sampling, possibility of selection bias, and generalizability to the source population. The overall quality of the trials was examined according to the GRADE Working Group criteria.

Summary of Findings

Fourteen prevalence studies examining Canadian adults and children met the eligibility criteria. With the exception of one longitudinal study, the studies had a cross-sectional design. Two studies were conducted among Canadian adults with renal disease but none studied Canadian children with renal disease (though three such US studies were included). No systematic reviews or health technology assessments that evaluated the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Canada were identified. Two studies were published in grey literature, consisting of a Canadian survey designed to measure serum vitamin D levels and a study in infants presented as an abstract at a conference. Also included were the results of vitamin D tests performed in community laboratories in Ontario between October 2008 and September 2009 (provided by the Ontario Association of Medical Laboratories).

Different threshold levels were used in the studies, thus we reported the percentage of subjects with serum levels of between 25 and 30 nmol/L and between 37.5 and 50 nmol/L. Some studies stratified the results according to factors affecting vitamin D status and two used multivariate models to investigate the effects of these characteristics (including age, season, BMI, vitamin D intake, skin pigmentation, and season) on serum 25(OH)D levels. It’s unclear, however, if these studies were adequately powered for these subgroup analyses.

Study participants generally consisted of healthy, community-dwelling subjects and most excluded individuals with conditions or medications that alter vitamin D or bone metabolism, such as kidney or liver disease. Although the studies were conducted in different parts of Canada, fewer were performed in Northern latitudes, i.e. above 53°N, which is equivalent to the city of Edmonton.

Adults

Serum vitamin D levels of < 25 to 30 nmol/L were observed in 0% to 25.5% of the subjects included in five studies; the weighted average was 3.8% (95% CI: 3.0, 4.6). The preliminary results of the Canadian survey showed that approximately 5% of the subjects had serum levels below 29.5 nmol/L. The results of over 600,000 vitamin D tests performed in Ontarian community laboratories between October 2008 and September 2009 showed that 2.6% of adults (> 18 years) had serum levels < 25 nmol/L.

The prevalence of serum vitamin D levels below 37.5-50 nmol/L reported among studies varied widely, ranging from 8% to 73.6% with a weighted average of 22.5%. The preliminary results of the CHMS survey showed that between 10% and 25% of subjects had serum levels below 37 to 48 nmol/L. The results of the vitamin D tests performed in community laboratories showed that 10% to 25% of the individuals had serum levels between 39 and 50 nmol/L.

In an attempt to explain this inter-study variation, the study results were stratified according to factors affecting serum vitamin D levels, as summarized below. These results should be interpreted with caution as none were adjusted for other potential confounders. Adequately powered multivariate analyses would be necessary to determine the contribution of risk factors to lower serum 25(OH)D levels.

Seasonal variation

Three adult studies evaluating serum vitamin D levels in different seasons observed a trend towards a higher prevalence of serum levels < 37.5 to 50 nmol/L during the winter and spring months, specifically 21% to 39%, compared to 8% to 14% in the summer. The weighted average was 23.6% over the winter/spring months and 9.6% over summer. The difference between the seasons was not statistically significant in one study and not reported in the other two studies.

Skin Pigmentation

Four studies observed a trend toward a higher prevalence of serum vitamin D levels < 37.5 to 50 nmol/L in subjects with darker skin pigmentation compared to those with lighter skin pigmentation, with weighted averages of 46.8% among adults with darker skin colour and 15.9% among those with fairer skin.

Vitamin D intake and serum levels

Four adult studies evaluated serum vitamin D levels according to vitamin D intake and showed an overall trend toward a lower prevalence of serum levels < 37.5 to 50 nmol/L with higher levels of vitamin D intake. One study observed a dose-response relationship between higher vitamin D intake from supplements, diet (milk), and sun exposure (results not adjusted for other variables). It was observed that subjects taking 50 to 400 IU or > 400 IU of vitamin D per day had a 6% and 3% prevalence of serum vitamin D level < 40 nmol/L, respectively, versus 29% in subjects not on vitamin D supplementation. Similarly, among subjects drinking one or two glasses of milk per day, the prevalence of serum vitamin D levels < 40 nmol/L was found to be 15%, versus 6% in those who drink more than two glasses of milk per day and 21% among those who do not drink milk. On the other hand, one study observed little variation in serum vitamin D levels during winter according to milk intake, with the proportion of subjects exhibiting vitamin D levels of < 40 nmol/L being 21% among those drinking 0-2 glasses per day, 26% among those drinking > 2 glasses, and 20% among non-milk drinkers.

The overall quality of evidence for the studies conducted among adults was deemed to be low, although it was considered moderate for the subgroups of skin pigmentation and seasonal variation.

Newborn, Children and Adolescents

Five Canadian studies evaluated serum vitamin D levels in newborns, children, and adolescents. In four of these, it was found that between 0 and 36% of children exhibited deficiency across age groups with a weighted average of 6.4%. The results of over 28,000 vitamin D tests performed in children 0 to 18 years old in Ontario laboratories (Oct. 2008 to Sept. 2009) showed that 4.4% had serum levels of < 25 nmol/L.

According to two studies, 32% of infants 24 to 30 months old and 35.3% of newborns had serum vitamin D levels of < 50 nmol/L. Two studies of children 2 to 16 years old reported that 24.5% and 34% had serum vitamin D levels below 37.5 to 40 nmol/L. In both studies, older children exhibited a higher prevalence than younger children, with weighted averages 34.4% and 10.3%, respectively. The overall weighted average of the prevalence of serum vitamin D levels < 37.5 to 50 nmol/L among pediatric studies was 25.8%. The preliminary results of the Canadian survey showed that between 10% and 25% of subjects between 6 and 11 years (N= 435) had serum levels below 50 nmol/L, while for those 12 to 19 years, 25% to 50% exhibited serum vitamin D levels below 50 nmol/L.

The effects of season, skin pigmentation, and vitamin D intake were not explored in Canadian pediatric studies. A Canadian surveillance study did, however, report 104 confirmed cases1 (2.9 cases per 100,000 children) of vitamin D-deficient rickets among Canadian children age 1 to 18 between 2002 and 2004, 57 (55%) of which from Ontario. The highest incidence occurred among children living in the North, i.e., the Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. In 92 (89%) cases, skin pigmentation was categorized as intermediate to dark, 98 (94%) had been breastfed, and 25 (24%) were offspring of immigrants to Canada. There were no cases of rickets in children receiving ≥ 400 IU VD supplementation/day.

Overall, the quality of evidence of the studies of children was considered very low.

Kidney Disease

Adults

Two studies evaluated serum vitamin D levels in Canadian adults with kidney disease. The first included 128 patients with chronic kidney disease stages 3 to 5, 38% of which had serum vitamin D levels of < 37.5 nmol/L (measured between April and July). This is higher than what was reported in Canadian studies of the general population during the summer months (i.e. between 8% and 14%). In the second, which examined 419 subjects who had received a renal transplantation (mean time since transplantation: 7.2 ± 6.4 years), the prevalence of serum vitamin D levels < 40 nmol/L was 27.3%. The authors concluded that the prevalence observed in the study population was similar to what is expected in the general population.

Children

No studies evaluating serum vitamin D levels in Canadian pediatric patients with kidney disease could be identified, although three such US studies among children with chronic kidney disease stages 1 to 5 were. The mean age varied between 10.7 and 12.5 years in two studies but was not reported in the third. Across all three studies, the prevalence of serum vitamin D levels below the range of 37.5 to 50 nmol/L varied between 21% and 39%, which is not considerably different from what was observed in studies of healthy Canadian children (24% to 35%).

Overall, the quality of evidence in adults and children with kidney disease was considered very low.

Clinical Utility of Vitamin D Testing

A high quality comprehensive systematic review published in August 2007 evaluated the association between serum vitamin D levels and different bone health outcomes in different age groups. A total of 72 studies were included. The authors observed that there was a trend towards improvement in some bone health outcomes with higher serum vitamin D levels. Nevertheless, precise thresholds for improved bone health outcomes could not be defined across age groups. Further, no new studies on the association were identified during an updated systematic review on vitamin D published in July 2009.

With regards to non-bone health outcomes, there is no high or even moderate quality evidence that supports the effectiveness of vitamin D in outcomes such as cancer, cardiovascular outcomes, and all-cause mortality. Even if there is any residual uncertainty, there is no evidence that testing vitamin D levels encourages adherence to Health Canada’s guidelines for vitamin D intake. A normal serum vitamin D threshold required to prevent non-bone health related conditions cannot be resolved until a causal effect or correlation has been demonstrated between vitamin D levels and these conditions. This is as an ongoing research issue around which there is currently too much uncertainty to base any conclusions that would support routine vitamin D testing.

For patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), there is again no high or moderate quality evidence supporting improved outcomes through the use of calcitriol or vitamin D analogs. In the absence of such data, the authors of the guidelines for CKD patients consider it best practice to maintain serum calcium and phosphate at normal levels, while supplementation with active vitamin D should be considered if serum PTH levels are elevated. As previously stated, the authors of guidelines for CKD patients believe that there is not enough evidence to support routine vitamin D [25(OH)D] testing. According to what is stated in the guidelines, decisions regarding the commencement or discontinuation of treatment with calcitriol or vitamin D analogs should be based on serum PTH, calcium, and phosphate levels.

Limitations associated with the evidence of vitamin D testing include ambiguities in the definition of an ‘adequate threshold level’ and both inter- and intra- assay variability. The MAS considers both the lack of a consensus on the target serum vitamin D levels and assay limitations directly affect and undermine the clinical utility of testing. The evidence supporting the clinical utility of vitamin D testing is thus considered to be of very low quality.

Daily vitamin D intake, either through diet or supplementation, should follow Health Canada’s recommendations for healthy individuals of different age groups. For those with medical conditions such as renal disease, liver disease, and malabsorption syndromes, and for those taking medications that may affect vitamin D absorption/metabolism, physician guidance should be followed with respect to both vitamin D testing and supplementation.

Conclusions

Studies indicate that vitamin D, alone or in combination with calcium, may decrease the risk of fractures and falls among older adults.

There is no high or moderate quality evidence to support the effectiveness of vitamin D in other outcomes such as cancer, cardiovascular outcomes, and all-cause mortality.

Studies suggest that the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Canadian adults and children is relatively low (approximately 5%), and between 10% and 25% have serum levels below 40 to 50 nmol/L (based on very low to low grade evidence).

Given the limitations associated with serum vitamin D measurement, ambiguities in the definition of a ‘target serum level’, and the availability of clear guidelines on vitamin D supplementation from Health Canada, vitamin D testing is not warranted for the average risk population.

Health Canada has issued recommendations regarding the adequate daily intake of vitamin D, but current studies suggest that the mean dietary intake is below these recommendations. Accordingly, Health Canada’s guidelines and recommendations should be promoted.

Based on a moderate level of evidence, individuals with darker skin pigmentation appear to have a higher risk of low serum vitamin D levels than those with lighter skin pigmentation and therefore may need to be specially targeted with respect to optimum vitamin D intake. The cause-effect of this association is currently unclear.

Individuals with medical conditions such as renal and liver disease, osteoporosis, and malabsorption syndromes, as well as those taking medications that may affect vitamin D absorption/metabolism, should follow their physician’s guidance concerning both vitamin D testing and supplementation.

Background

We conducted a randomized, placebocontrolled, double-blind trial to test the hypothesis that vitamin D3 supplementation would prevent bone loss in calcium-replete, African American postmenopausal women.

Methods

Two hundred eight healthy black postmenopausal women, 50 to 75 years of age, were assigned to receive either placebo or 20 μg/d (800 IU) of vitamin D3. Calcium supplements were provided to ensure a total calcium intake of 1200 to 1500 mg/d. After 2 years, the vitamin D3 dose was increased to 50 μg/d (2000 IU) in the active group, and the study continued for an additional year. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured every 6 months. Markers of bone turnover, vitamin D metabolites, and parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels were measured in serum.

Results

There were no significant differences in BMD between the active and control groups throughout the study. There was also no relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels attained and rates of bone loss. There was an increase in BMD of the total body, hip, and radius at 1 year in both groups. Over the 3 years, BMD declined at these sites by 0.26% to 0.55% per year. The BMD of the lumbar spine increased slightly in the placebo and active groups. There were no persistent changes in serum PTH levels or the markers of bone turnover, although there was a transient decline in PTH in both groups at 3 months. No significant adverse events were attributed to vitamin D supplementation.

Conclusions

There was no observed effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on bone loss or bone turnover markers in calcium-replete, postmenopausal African American women. Further studies are needed to determine if these findings are applicable to women of other ethnic groups.

Objective

The objective of this study was to evaluate the relations between bone mineral density (BMD) and lead in blood, tibia, and patella and to investigate how BMD modifies these lead biomarkers in older women.

Design

In this study, we used cross-sectional analysis.

Participants

We studied 112 women, 50–70 years of age, including both whites and African Americans, residing in Baltimore, Maryland.

Measurements

We measured lumbar spine BMD, blood and bone lead by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, anodic stripping voltammetry, and 109Cd-induced K-shell X-ray fluorescence, respectively. We measured vitamin D receptor and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotypes using standard methods.

Results

Mean (± SD) BMD and lead levels in blood, tibia, and patella were 1.02 ± 0.16 g/cm2, 3.3 ± 2.2 μg/dL, 19.7 ± 13.2 μg/g, and 5.7 ± 15.3 μg/g, respectively. In adjusted analysis, higher BMD was associated with higher tibia lead levels (p = 0.03). BMD was not associated with lead levels in blood or patella. There was evidence of significant effect modification by BMD on relations of physical activity with blood lead levels and by APOE genotype on relations of BMD with tibia lead levels. There was no evidence that BMD modified relations between tibia lead or patella lead and blood lead levels.

Conclusions

We believe that BMD represents the capacity of bone that can store lead, by substitution for calcium, and thus the findings may have relevance for effect-size estimates in persons with higher BMD.

Relevance to clinical practice

The results have implications for changes in lead kinetics with aging, and thus the related risk of health effects associated with substantial early- and midlife lead exposure in older persons.

PURPOSE: We conducted a cross-sectional study examining potentially modifiable factors associated with cognitive impairments (mild or severe) in older whites, African Americans and Hispanics attending an outpatient eye clinic. METHODS: In-clinic interviews and physical examinations assessed social, demographic and health information from 100 consecutive Hispanic, African-American and white adults aged > or = 55. Our primary outcome was presence of any cognitive impairment (mild or severe) using the St. Louis University Mental Status Examination (SLUMS) scale. RESULTS: Of the 100 subjects, 65 screened positive for cognitive impairments on the SLUMS cognitive instrument: 46 with mild cognitive impairment and 19 with severe impairment (possible dementia). African-American and Hispanic adults (nonwhites) were significantly more likely to have cognitive impairment compared to white adults (OR 2.80: 95% CI = 1.05-7.44), independent of age, years of education and systolic blood pressure. Subjects with diabetes also had increased odds of cognitive impairments (OR 3.28, 95% CI = 1.21-8.90) even after adjusting for relevant confounders. There was a nonsignificant trend between visual acuity impairment and cognitive impairment (p = 0.059). CONCLUSIONS: Sixty-five percent of adults aged > or = 55 attending the eye clinic screened positive for cognitive impairments, with higher rates among nonwhites and adults living with diabetes.

Vitamin D3, or cholecalciferol, is the naturally occurring form of vitamin D that is converted in the skin and hydroxylated in the liver and kidney to the active form found in humans. The main role for vitamin D is calcium homeostasis, and low levels of vitamin D result in lower gastrointestinal absorption of calcium. Vitamin D is also critical for mineralization of bone tissue, muscle function, and coordination. Recent studies have found prevention of bone mass loss and reduction in falls and fractures in patients supplemented with vitamin D. A high percentage of systemic lupus erythematosus patients are reported to have insufficient or deficient levels of vitamin D. This paper reviews the biology of vitamin D, its role in calcium homeostasis, and how it contributes to the maintenance of bone, muscle, and joint function in older adults and individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus.

Introduction

Cognitive impairment in older adults is a major cause of functional disability. Interest in protecting brain health is likely to grow as the US population ages and more people have experiences with cognitive decline. Recent scientific evidence suggests that physical activity, heart-healthy diets, and social involvement may help to maintain brain health. We investigated attitudes about aging well among older African Americans and whites to inform the development of interventions to promote cognitive health.

Methods

We used a purposive sample to conduct 5 focus groups with African Americans (n = 42) and 4 with whites (n = 41). Participants also completed a brief survey. In discussions centered on brain health, participants were asked to describe someone they know who is aging well. We used a grounded theory approach to guide the analysis and interpretation of the data.

Results

Both African Americans and whites said that components of aging well include social activity, a strong spiritual life, not taking medications, and traveling. African Americans said aging well means being cognitively intact, free of serious mobility impairment or other health problems, and independent. Whites described aging well as living a long time, staying physically active, maintaining a positive outlook, and having good genes.

Conclusion

African Americans did not commonly associate physical activity with aging well, which suggests that tailored intervention strategies for promoting brain health should emphasize physical activity. African Americans and whites did not commonly associate nutrition with aging well, which also suggests a useful focus for public health interventions.

This study examined if reported physical activity has beneficial outcomes on disability through cognitive performance–mediated effects and if these mediation effects are comparable for White and African American elders. Longitudinal data from the Assets and Health Dynamics among the Oldest Old study (N = 4,472) are used to test mediation in multilevel models. During the 7-year follow-up, cognitive performance mediated the effects of reported physical activity on disability in the entire sample and in Whites but not in African Americans. Our results indicate that reported physical activity may delay the disability development through improvement in cognitive performance. Unmeasured education and comorbidity influences may have obscured the mediation effects in African Americans. Reported physical activity plays a key role in the independence of older adults and should be particularly promoted in African Americans and during the entire life course.

The present study examined differences in cognitive performance of African American and European American older adults on cognitive and intellectual measures, and the extent to which literacy status or reading level was useful in explaining these group differences. African American elders performed more poorly than European American elders on twelve of thirteen cognitive tests administered, p < .05. After controlling for reading level achievement, differences in performance became non-significant for five of these twelve tests. Nonetheless, some differences persisted, suggesting that other potential mediators of race differences remain to be explored in future research.

Summary

We compared rates of BMD decline in older men of diverse ethnic backgroud. The rate of bone loss was statistically equivalent between men of African and Caucasian descent.

Introduction

Race differences in peak bone mineral density (BMD) are well established, but the magnitude of bone loss among non-white men has not been well characterized. Our objective was to compare and contrast the rates of decline in BMD with aging among older men of different race/ethnic groups.

Methods

The rate of decline in hip BMD was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (Hologic QDR-4500 W) with an average follow-up of 4.6 years in 3,869 Caucasian, 138 African American, 145 Asian, and 334 Afro-Caribbean men aged≥65 years (Mean ages: 73±5, 70±4, 72±5, 71±5 years, respectively).

Results

The annual rate of decline in BMD at the femoral neck was −0.32%, −0.42%, −0.09%, and −0.44%/year for Caucasian, African American, Asian, and Afro-Caribbean men, respectively (p<0.05 for Caucasian versus Asian). Although men of African ancestry have higher peak BMD than Caucasians, rates of decline in BMD with aging appear to be statistically equivalent in our study. In contrast, Asian men experienced a slower rate of decline in BMD compared with Caucasians and African Americans.

Conclusion

More studies are needed to better define the natural history of and factors associated with bone loss among non-white men.

Vitamin D deficiency in the patients treated for breast cancer is associated with numerous adverse effects (bone loss, arthralgia, and falls). The first aim of this study was to assess vitamin D status, determined by 25-OH vitamin D levels, among women diagnosed with breast cancer according to demographic/clinical variables and bone mineral density (BMD). The second aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of daily low-dose and weekly high-dose vitamin D supplementation on 25-OH vitamin D levels. This retrospective study included 224 women diagnosed with stage 0–III breast cancer who received treatment at the James P. Wilmot Cancer Center at the University of Rochester Medical Center. Total 25-OH vitamin D levels (D2 + D3) were determined at baseline for all participants. Vitamin D deficiency was defined as a 25-OH vitamin D level < 20 ng/ml, insufficiency as 20–31 ng/ml, and sufficiency as ≥32 ng/ml. BMD was assessed during the period between 3 months before and 6 months following the baseline vitamin D assessment. Based on the participants’ baseline levels, they received either no supplementation, low-dose supplementation (1,000 IU/day), or high-dose supplementation (≥50,000 IU/week), and 25-OH vitamin D was reassessed in the following 8–16 weeks. Approximately 66.5% had deficient/insufficient vitamin D levels at baseline. Deficiency/insufficiency was more common among non-Caucasians, women with later-stage disease, and those who had previously received radiation therapy (P < 0.05). Breast cancer patients with deficient/insufficient 25-OH vitamin D levels had significantly lower lumbar BMD (P = 0.03). Compared to the no-supplementation group, weekly high-dose supplementation significantly increased 25-OH vitamin D levels, while daily low-dose supplementation did not significantly increase levels. Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency were common among women with breast cancer and associated with reduced BMD in the spine. Clinicians should carefully consider vitamin D supplementation regimens when treating vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency in breast cancer patients.

Background & objectives:

Hyperthyroidism causes bone loss, and its treatment may restore bone mass, however, concomitant vitamin D deficiency may prevent this. We undertook this study to measure the bone mineral density (BMD) 25 (OH) vitamin D levels in patients with Graves disease in our population which is predominently vitamin D deficient and how we change with when patients become euthyroid.

Methods:

The biochemical, thyroid functions, serum vitamin D levels and BMD were estimated in 80 consecutive patients with Graves and 80 euthyroid controls. Patients were treated and rendered euthyroid. Fifty four completed one year, and 27 completed two years of follow up.

Results:

Patients had significant reduced BMD during hyperthyroid state compared to normal healthy controls. The mean vitamin D levels at baseline were in the insufficient range both patients (12.67±6.24 ng/ml) and controls (10.99±7.05 ng/ml). The BMD improved at all sites with antithyroid treatment. But, the BMD adjusted for body mass index (BMI) and age at all sites showed significant decrease with time.

Interpretation & conclusions:

Age and body mass index positively correlated with BMD. There was improvement in absolute BMD of patients at one and two years of follow up. When the BMD was adjusted for age and BMI, there was a decrease in BMD at one year which was less in the second year including that the damage in BMD caused by thyroid hormone excess is not made up even after two years of patient being euthyroid. Whether vitamin D replacement would change this needs to be studied.

Summary

The remodeling transient describes a change in bone mass that lasts one remodeling cycle following an intervention that disturbs the calcium economy. We demonstrated the transient in a study of the response of bone density to calcium/vitamin D3 supplementation and show the hazards of misinterpretation if the transient is not considered.

Introduction

The remodeling transient describes a change in bone mass that lasts for one remodeling cycle following an intervention that disturbs the calcium economy.

Methods

We report an intervention with calcium and vitamin D supplementation in 208 postmenopausal African-American women where the remodeling transient was considered a priori in the study design. Both groups (calcium alone vs. calcium + 20 μg (800 IU) vitamin D3) were ensured a calcium intake in excess of 1200 mg/day.

Results

There were no differences between the two groups in changes in BMD over time. These BMD changes were therefore interpreted to reflect increased calcium intake in both groups but not any influence of vitamin D. A transient increase in bone mineral density was observed during the first year of study, followed by a decline. The remodeling period was estimated at about 9 months, which is similar to histomorphometric estimates.

Conclusion

It is problematic to draw conclusions concerning interventions that influence the calcium economy without considering the remodeling transient in study design. Studies of agents that effect bone remodeling must be carried out for at least two remodeling cycles and appropriate techniques must be used in data analysis.

Cognitive changes, depression, arthralgia and dermatitis developed in a 33-year-old woman 5 years after a jejunoileal shunt for massive obesity, The dermatitis and low serum carotene and vitamin C values suggested vitamin deficiencies, The serum magnesium concentration also was low. Vitamin and mineral replacement led to amelioration of the physical and psychological symptoms; the improvement has been maintained at 18-month follow-up. The favourable changes were documented with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and test performance ratings. It is concluded that the surgical procedure caused vitamin and magnesium deficiencies and that these resulted in the patient's symptoms.

There are inconsistent findings on the effects of vitamin K on bone mineral density (BMD) and undercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOC). The present intervention study evaluated the effect in subjects over 60-yr-old. The vitamin K group (vitamin K + vitamin D + calcium supplement; 15 mg of vitamin K2 [menatetrenone] three times daily, 400 IU of vitamin D once a day, and 315 mg of calcium twice daily) and the control group (vitamin D + calcium supplement) were randomly assigned. During the six months of treatment, seventy eight women participated (38 in the vitamin K group and 40 in the control group) and 45 women completed the study. The baseline characteristics of study participants did not differ between the vitamin K and the control groups. In a per protocol analysis after 6 months, L3 bone mineral density has increased statistically significantly in the vitamin K group compared to the control group (0.01 ± 0.03 g/cm2 vs -0.008 ± 0.04 g/cm2, P = 0.049). UcOC concentration was also significantly decreased in the vitamin K group (-1.6 ± 1.6 ng/dL vs -0.4 ± 1.1 ng/dL, P = 0.008). In conclusion, addition of vitamin K to vitamin D and calcium supplements in the postmenopausal Korean women increase the L3 BMD and reduce the UcOC concentration.

Purpose

There are limited data on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and bone measures in men of African ancestry. To better understand racial differences in vitamin D status and bone health a cross-sectional study among 446 Caucasian men in the US and 496 men of African ancestry in Tobago (aged ≥65 years) was conducted.

Methods

Serum 25(OH)D (liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry) was measured and peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) scans were administered. Bone measures estimated included trabecular and cortical volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), bone mineral content (BMC), bone geometry (cross-sectional area and cortical thickness), and polar and axial strength strain indices (SSIp and SSIx).

Results

Men of African ancestry had higher 25(OH)D than Caucasians (34.7 vs. 27.6 ng/ml, p<0.01). Among Caucasians, 25(OH)D was positively (p trend <0.05) associated with cortical vBMD, total BMC, cortical thickness, SSIp and SSIx at the distal radius after adjustment for potential confounders. Similar patterns were observed at the distal tibia. In contrast, in men of African ancestry, there was an inverse association (p trend<0.05) between 25(OH)D and cross-sectional area, and SSIx. Race modified (p for interaction<0.05) the association between 25(OH)D and total BMC, cross-sectional area, SSIp, SSIx, and trabecular vBMD of the radius. In men of African ancestry, there was evidence of a threshold effect (at approximately 18 ng/ml) for 25(OH)D on tibial total BMC and cortical thickness.

Conclusions

More studies are needed to better comprehend these race differences for 25(OH)D and bone density, geometry and indices of bone strength.

Background

Vitamin D insufficiency in children may have long-term skeletal consequences as vitamin D affects calcium absorption, bone mineralization and bone mass attainment.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This school-based study investigated vitamin D status and its association with vitamin D intake and bone health in 195 Finnish children and adolescents (age range 7–19 years). Clinical characteristics, physical activity and dietary vitamin D intake were evaluated. Blood and urine samples were collected for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) and other parameters of calcium homeostasis. Bone mineral density (BMD) and body composition were measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Altogether 71% of the subjects were vitamin D insufficient (25-OHD <50 nmol/L). The median 25-OHD was 41 nmol/L for girls and 45 nmol/L for boys, and the respective median vitamin D intakes 9.1 µg/day and 10 µg/day. In regression analysis, after adjusting for relevant factors, 25-OHD concentration explained 5.6% of the variance in lumbar BMD; 25-OHD and exercise together explained 7.6% of the variance in total hip BMD and 17% of the variance in whole body BMD. S-25-OHD was an independent determinant of lumbar spine and whole body BMD and in magnitude surpassed the effects of physical activity.

Conclusions/Significance

Vitamin D insufficiency was common even when vitamin D intake exceeded the recommended daily intake. Vitamin D status was a key determinant of BMD. The findings suggest urgent need to increase vitamin D intake to optimize bone health in children.

PURPOSE: To examine the prevalence of osteopenia and/or osteoporosis among African Americans with early rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and to assess the effect of using race/ethnicity-specific normative data. METHODS: Bone mineral density (BMD) of the hip and spine was assessed in African Americans with early RA. To examine the impact of using different normative data on disease classification, we calculated two sets of T scores, the first using sex-matched reference data from Caucasians and the second using data from African Americans. Osteoporosis was defined as a BMD at either site > or =2.5 SD below the young adult mean. Osteopenia was defined as a BMD > or =1 SD and <2.5 SD below this mean. RESULTS: Using Caucasian referent data, 33% (n=48) of patients had osteopenia or worse (n=48, 32.9%) and 5% (n=8) were osteoporotic. With the use of African-American normative data, 55% (n=94) were osteopenic or worse, and 16% (n=27) were osteoporotic. CONCLUSION: African Americans with RA are at risk of osteopenia and/or osteoporosis. Different diagnostic classifications may occur in this population based solely on the normative data used for assessing fracture risk. These results underscore the need for a standardized approach in defining osteopenia and osteoporosis in African Americans.

Purpose: To examine the prevalence of osteopenia and/or osteoporosis among African Americans with early rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and to assess the effect of using race/ethnicity-specific normative data.

Methods: Bone mineral density (BMD) of the hip and spine was assessed in African Americans with early RA. To examine the impact of using different normative data on disease classification, we calculated two sets of T scores, the first using sex-matched reference data from Caucasians and the second using data from African Americans. Osteoporosis was defined as a BMD at either site ≥2.5 SD below the young adult mean. Osteopenia was defined as a BMD ≥1 SD and <2.5 SD below this mean.

Results: Using Caucasian referent data, 33% (n=48) of patients had osteopenia or worse (n=48, 32.9%) and 5% (n=8) were osteoporotic. With the use of African-American normative data, 55% (n=94) were osteopenic or worse, and 16% (n=27) were osteoporotic.

Conclusion: African Americans with RA are at risk of osteopenia and/or osteoporosis. Different diagnostic classifications may occur in this population based solely on the normative data used for assessing fracture risk. These results underscore the need for a standardized approach in defining osteopenia and osteoporosis in African Americans.

Background

Older people have a high risk of vitamin B12 deficiency; this can lead to varying degrees of cognitive and neurological impairment. CBL deficiency may present as macrocytic anemia, subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord, or as neuropathy, but is often asymptomatic in older people. Less is known about subclinical vitamin B12 deficiency and concurrent neuroconduction and cognitive impairment. A Programme of Complementary Feeding for the Older Population (PACAM) in Chile delivers 2 complementary fortified foods that provide approximately 1.4 μg/day of vitamin B12 (2.4 μg/day elderly RDA). The aim of the present study is to assess whether supplementation with vitamin B12 will improve neuroconduction and cognitive function in older people who have biochemical evidence of vitamin B12 insufficiency in the absence of clinical deficiency.

Methods

We designed a cluster double-blind placebo-controlled trial involving community dwelling people aged 70-79 living in Santiago, Chile. We randomized 15 clusters (health centers) involving 300 people (20 per cluster). Each cluster will be randomly assigned to one of three arms: a) a 1 mg vitamin B12 pill taken daily and a routine PACAM food; b) a placebo pill and the milk-PACAM food fortified to provide 1 mg of vitamin B12; c) the routine PACAM food and a placebo pill.

The study has been designed as an 18 month follow up period. The primary outcomes assessed at baseline, 4, 9 and 18 months will be: serum levels of vitamin B12, neuroconduction and cognitive function.

Conclusions

In view of the high prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency in later life, the present study has potential public health interest because since it will measure the impact of the existing program of complementary feeding as compared to two options that provide higher vitamin B12 intakes that might potentially may contribute in preserving neurophysiologic and cognitive function and thus improve quality of life for older people in Chile.

Trial registration

ISRCTN: ISRCTN02694183