Related Articles

Rationale

The burden of obstructive lung disease is increasing, yet there are limited data on its natural history in young adults.

Objectives

To determine in a prospective cohort of generally healthy young adults the influence of early adult lung function on the presence of airflow obstruction in middle age.

Methods

Longitudinal study of 2,496 adults who were 18-30 years of age at entry, did not report having asthma, and returned at Year 20. Airflow obstruction was defined as an FEV1/FVC ratio less than the lower limit of normal.

Measurements and Main Results

Airflow obstruction was present in 6.9% and 7.8% of participants at Years 0 and 20. Less than 10% of participants with airflow obstruction self-reported COPD. In cross sectional analyses airflow obstruction was associated with less education, smoking, and self-reported COPD. Low FEV1 and FEV1/FVC and airflow obstruction in young adults were associated with low lung function and airflow obstruction 20 years later. Of those with airflow obstruction at Year 0, 52% had airflow obstruction 20 years later. The FEV1/FVC at Year 0 was highly predictive of airflow obstruction 20 years later (c-statistic 0.91; 95% CI 0.89-0.93). The effect of cigarette smoking on lung function decline with age was most evident in young adults with pre-existing airflow obstruction.

Conclusions

Airflow obstruction is mostly unrecognized in young and middle age adults. A low FEV1, low FEV1/FVC and airflow obstruction in young adults, in addition to smoking, are highly predictive of low lung function and airflow obstruction in middle age.

Rationale: To study the relationship between emphysema and/or airflow obstruction and lung cancer in a high-risk population.

Objective: We studied lung cancer related to radiographic emphysema and spirometric airflow obstruction in tobacco-exposed persons who were screened for lung cancer using chest computed tomography (CT).

Methods: Subjects completed questionnaires, spirometry, and low-dose helical chest CT. CT scans were scored for emphysema based on National Emphysema Treatment Trial criteria. Multiple logistic regressions estimated the independent associations between various factors, including radiographic emphysema and airflow obstruction, and subsequent lung cancer diagnosis.

Measurements and Main Results: Among 3,638 subjects, 57.5, 18.8, 14.6, and 9.1% had no, trace, mild, and moderate–severe emphysema, and 57.3, 13.6, 22.8, and 6.4% had no, mild (Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease [GOLD] I), moderate (GOLD II), and severe (GOLD III–IV) airflow obstruction. Of 3,638 subjects, 99 (2.7%) received a lung cancer diagnosis. Adjusting for sex, age, years of cigarette smoking, and number of cigarettes smoked daily, logistic regression showed the expected lung cancer association with the presence of airflow obstruction (GOLD I–IV, odds ratio [OR], 2.09; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33–3.27). A second logistic regression showed lung cancer related to emphysema (OR, 3.56; 95% CI, 2.21–5.73). After additional adjustments for GOLD class, emphysema remained a strong and statistically significant factor related to lung cancer (OR, 3.14; 95% CI, 1.91–5.15).

Conclusions: Emphysema on CT scan and airflow obstruction on spirometry are related to lung cancer in a high-risk population. Emphysema is independently related to lung cancer. Both radiographic emphysema and airflow obstruction should be considered when assessing lung cancer risk.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of unidentified chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and determine the screening accuracy of the Lung Function Questionnaire (LFQ).

PATIENTS AND METHODS: Cigarette smokers who had a smoking history of 10 or more pack-years and were aged 30 years or older were recruited from 36 centers from February 18, 2009, to May 29, 2009. A total of 1575 patients completed a Web-based survey including the 5-item LFQ. Spirometry was performed on patients with an LFQ total score of 18 or less and on a subset scoring more than 18. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients at risk of airflow obstruction as measured by the LFQ (score, ≤18) in whom an airflow obstruction was confirmed by spirometry.

RESULTS: Of the patients who completed the LFQ, 849 (54%) had standardized spirometry data available. On the basis of LFQ and spirometry results, the estimated prevalence of possible COPD was 17.9% (95% confidence interval, 15.3%-20.6%). At a cut point of 18 or less, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of the LFQ were 88%, 25%, 21%, and 90%, respectively. Approximately 1 in 5 patients (21%) aged 30 years or older and 1 in 4 (26%) aged 50 years or older scored 18 or less on the LFQ and had a ratio of forced expiratory volume in the first second of expiration to forced vital capacity less than 0.70.

CONCLUSION: On the basis of postbronchodilator spirometry results using weighted estimates, approximately 1 in 5 patients (21%) aged 30 years or older with a smoking history of 10 or more pack-years seen in a primary care setting is likely to have COPD. The LFQ could be a helpful COPD case-finding tool for clinicians to identify patients who need further evaluation.

Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01013948

On the basis of postbronchodilator spirometry results using weighted estimates, approximately 1 in 5 patients aged 30 years or older with a smoking history of 10 or more pack-years seen in a primary care setting is likely to have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Recent reports on the simultaneous occurrence of systemic inflammation and airflow obstruction are usually based on a highly selective patient population, but their importance warrants further evaluation in the general population. The objectives were to study the interrelationship between airflow obstruction, smoking, hypertension, obesity and CRP as a marker of systemic inflammation in a randomly selected sample of the general Icelandic population (n = 939). This study comprised 758 randomly selected men and women 40 years and older living in Reykjavik, Iceland, and who were participating in the Burden of Obstructive Lung Disease (BOLD) study (81% response rate). In addition to the BOLD protocol, which included post-bronchodilator spirometry, they answered questions about general health and medication. Serum samples were taken for measurement of C-reactive protein (CRP). In the sample—245 individuals (33%) reported having hypertension. Subjects with hypertension were older, had a higher BMI and higher CRP levels. Subjects with hypertension had lower values of FEV1 than predicted (89.9 ± 18.5 vs. 94.5 ± 14.4%) (p < 0.001) and FVC (92.2 ± 15.1 vs. 95.3 ± 12.3%) (p = 0.002). These differences remained significant after adjusting for age, BMI, CRP and smoking. Hypertension and CRP levels above the median were both independently and additively associated with lower FEV1 and FVC. In addition a lower FVC% was also associated with a higher BMI (> 30 mg/m2). Use of betablocking antihypertensives was not related to lung function. Hypertension, BMI and systemic inflammation affect lung function independently of each other. All three variables have a negative effect on FVC, while hypertension and high CRP were independently associated with impaired FEV1.

Rationale

Airflow obstruction and/or emphysema have been associated with lung cancer risk, however this relationship and the joint occurrence of these conditions are not well studied in the African American population.

Objective

Describe the prevalence of airflow obstruction and/or emphysema in African Americans with lung cancer and evaluate their impact on the management and outcome of lung cancer.

Methods

Medical records were reviewed for 114 African Americans who had participated in population-based case-control studies of lung cancer and who sought medical care at the Karmanos Cancer Center in Detroit, Michigan. The medical records of these patients were reviewed for demographics, type and stage of lung cancer, spirometry, treatment and outcome. The chest CT scans around the time of the diagnosis of lung cancer were reviewed by a radiologist for evidence of emphysema. COPD was diagnosed when there were changes consistent with emphysema on CT scan and/or airflow obstruction by spirometry.

Results

There were no differences by sex for age at lung cancer diagnosis (p=0.78) and tumor histology (p=0.43). Men were more likely to present at a later stage of lung cancer diagnosis compared to women (p=0.04) and women were more likely to have surgery than men (p=0.03). Overall, 94% of men and 78% of women in this population had spirometry and/or CT evidence of COPD. Men were somewhat more likely to have COPD diagnosed by either CT or spirometry than women (p=0.06), but the GOLD Classification scores did not differ by gender among those with spirometry-diagnosed COPD (p=0.34). Seventy eight percent of individuals who did not report a previous diagnosis of COPD had clinical evidence of COPD, whereas 94% of individuals who reported a previous diagnosis of COPD also had clinical evidence of COPD (p=0.03). Among individuals who had both spirometry and CT data available, 29% had CT evidence of emphysema but normal spirometry. No differences in COPD diagnosis (p=0.82) or emphysema diagnosis (p=0.51) were noted by tumor histology. Stage at diagnosis also did not differ by COPD or emphysema diagnosis (p=0.30 and p=0.06, respectively), nor did treatment modality (p=0.54 and p=0.10, respectively). Lung cancer patients with COPD diagnosed either via spirometry or CT did not show an increased risk of death compared to lung cancer patients without COPD after adjusting for age at diagnosis, gender and stage (HR=1.31 95% CI: 0.68-2.53).

Conclusion

There is a high incidence of COPD, emphysema in particular, in a selected group of African American patients with lung cancer. A significant number of these patients were not aware that they had COPD. There was no significant difference in the outcome of lung cancer in relation to the presence or absence of COPD.

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the leading causes of death and loss of disability-adjusted life-years. However, many COPD patients are not diagnosed because of underrecognition or underdiagnosis of this disease among many patients and physicians. One possible reason is underrecognition of spirometry. In this study, we examined the prevalence of airflow limitation and underlying disease in patients with airflow limitation.

Methodology

From April 2006 to March 2008, patients who had spirometry performed were examined. The original disease of patients, pulmonary function tests, smoking status, and respiratory symptoms were surveyed from their medical records.

Results

Of all patients who had spirometry performed, 15.8% showed airflow limitation (FEV1/FVC < 0.7). A variety of diseases were observed in patients with airflow limitation. Among all diseases, cardiovascular disease was the highest and gastrointestinal malignant disease had the second highest prevalence in patients with airflow limitation.

Conclusion

COPD might be frequent in conditions of comorbidity in patients treated for various diseases. Attention should be paid to the possibility of co-existence of COPD and the influence of COPD on these patients.

Rationale

Most patients who develop persistent airflow limitation do so either as a manifestation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that is largely related to smoking or as a consequence of persistent asthma. We sought to compare the natural course of lung function associated with persistent airflow limitation in subjects with and without asthma from early to late adult life.

Methods

We studied 2552 participants aged 25 or more who had multiple questionnaire and lung function data from the long-term prospective population-based Tucson Epidemiological Study of Airway Obstructive Disease. Persistent airflow limitation was defined as FEV1/FVC ratio consistently < 70% in all completed surveys subsequent to the first survey with airflow limitation. Participants were divided into nine groups based on the combination of their physician-confirmed asthma status (never, onset ≤ 25 years, or onset > 25 years) and the presence of airflow limitation during the study follow-up (never, inconsistent, or persistent).

Results

Among subjects with an asthma onset ≤ 25 years, blood eosinophilia increased significantly the odds of developing persistent airflow limitation (adjOR: 3.7, 1.4–9.5), whereas cigarette smoking was the strongest risk factor for persistent airflow limitation among non-asthmatics and among subjects with asthma onset after age 25 years. Among subjects with persistent airflow limitation, the natural course of lung function differed between subjects with asthma onset ≤ 25 years and non-asthmatics, with the former having lower FEV1 levels at age 25 (predicted value for a 175-cm tall male of 3,400 versus 4,090 ml, respectively; p<0.001) and the latter having greater FEV1 loss between age 25 and 75 (1,590 versus 2,140 ml; p=0.003).

Conclusion

In subjects who have asthma onset before 25 years of age and persistent airflow limitation in adult life, the bulk of the FEV1 deficit is already established before age 25 years.

Rationale: Wood smoke–associated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is common in women in developing countries but has not been adequately described in developed countries.

Objectives: Our objective was to determine whether wood smoke exposure was a risk factor for COPD in a population of smokers in the United States and whether aberrant gene promoter methylation in sputum may modify this association.

Methods: For this cross-sectional study, 1,827 subjects were drawn from the Lovelace Smokers' Cohort, a predominantly female cohort of smokers. Wood smoke exposure was self-reported. Postbronchodilator spirometry was obtained, and COPD outcomes studied included percent predicted FEV1, airflow obstruction, and chronic bronchitis. Effect modification of wood smoke exposure with current cigarette smoke, ethnicity, sex, and promoter methylation of lung cancer-related genes in sputum on COPD outcomes were separately explored. Multivariable logistic and poisson regression models were used for binary and rate-based outcomes, respectively.

Measurements and Main Results: Self-reported wood smoke exposure was independently associated with a lower percent predicted FEV1 (point estimate [± SE] −0.03 ± 0.01) and a higher prevalence of airflow obstruction and chronic bronchitis (odds ratio, 1.96; 95% confidence interval, 1.52–2.52 and 1.64 (95% confidence interval, 1.31–2.06, respectively). These associations were stronger among current cigarette smokers, non-Hispanic whites, and men. Wood smoke exposure interacted in a multiplicative manner with aberrant promoter methylation of the p16 or GATA4 genes on lower percent predicted FEV1.

Conclusions: These studies identify a novel link between wood smoke exposure and gene promoter methylation that synergistically increases the risk for reduced lung function in cigarette smokers.

The relation between citric acid cough threshold and airway hyperresponsiveness was investigated in 11 non-smoking patients with allergic asthma (mean FEV1 94% predicted) and 25 non-atopic smokers with chronic airflow obstruction (mean FEV1 65% predicted). Cough threshold was determined on two occasions by administering doubling concentrations of citric acid. Seven of the 11 asthmatic subjects and 14 of 25 smokers with chronic airflow obstruction had a positive cough threshold on both test days. Cough threshold measurements were reproducible in both groups (standard deviation of duplicate measurements 1.2 doubling concentrations in asthma, 1.1 doubling concentrations in chronic airflow obstruction). Citric acid provocation did not cause bronchial obstruction in most patients, though four patients had a fall in FEV1 of more than 20% for a short time on one occasion only. No significant difference in cough threshold was found between the two patient groups despite differences in baseline FEV1 values. There was no significant correlation between cough threshold and the provocative concentration of histamine causing a 20% fall in FEV1 (PC20) histamine in either group. Thus sensory nerves can be activated with a tussive agent in patients with asthma and chronic airflow obstruction without causing bronchial smooth muscle contraction.

Background: The recently published GOLD guidelines provide a new system for staging chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from mild (stage I) to very severe (stage IV) and introduce a stage 0 (chronic cough and phlegm without airflow obstruction) that includes subjects "at risk" of developing the disease.

Methods: In order to assess the prevalence of GOLD stages of COPD in high income countries and to evaluate their association with the known risk factors for airflow obstruction, data from the European Community Respiratory Health Survey on more than 18 000 young adults (20–44 years) were analysed.

Results: The overall prevalence was 11.8% (95% CI 11.3 to 12.3) for stage 0, 2.5% (95% CI 2.2 to 2.7) for stage I, and 1.1% (95% CI 1.0 to 1.3) for stages II–III. Moderate to heavy smoking (⩾15 pack years) was significantly associated with both stage 0 (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 4.15; 95% CI 3.55 to 4.84) and stages I+ (RRR = 4.09; 95% CI 3.17 to 5.26), while subjects with stages I+ COPD had a higher likelihood of giving up smoking (RRR = 1.39; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.86) than those with GOLD stage 0 (RRR = 1.05; 95% CI 0.86 to 1.27). Environmental tobacco smoke had the same degree of positive association in both groups. Respiratory infections in childhood and low socioeconomic class were significantly and homogeneously associated with both groups, whereas occupational exposure was significantly associated only with stage 0. All the GOLD stages showed a significantly higher percentage of healthcare resource users than healthy subjects (p<0.001), with no difference between stage 0 and COPD.

Conclusions: A considerable percentage of young adults already suffered from COPD. GOLD stage 0 was characterised by the presence of the same risk factors as COPD and by the same high demand for medical assistance.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by airflow obstruction that is not fully reversible; symptoms include chronic cough, sputum production, and dyspnea with exertion. An estimated 50% of the 24 million adults in the USA who have COPD are thought to be misdiagnosed or undiagnosed. Factors contributing to this include a low awareness of COPD and the initial symptoms of the disease among the general population, acceptance of these symptoms as a consequence of aging or smoking, some symptomatic similarity to asthma, and failure of health care personnel to use spirometry for diagnosis. Increased familiarization with COPD diagnosis and treatment guidelines, and proactive identification of patients with increased risk of developing COPD through occupational, environmental, or lifestyle exposures, will assist in a timely, accurate diagnosis and effective treatment, which will consequently improve patient outcomes. This review addresses the issues surrounding the diagnosis and misdiagnosis of COPD, their consequences, and how COPD can be better managed within primary care, including consideration of COPD care in patient-centered medical home and chronic care models.

Objective:

To describe the item-selection and item-reduction for the Lung Function Questionnaire (LFQ), being developed to help clinicians identify patients appropriate for diagnostic evaluation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) using spirometry.

Methods:

Item selection and reduction were based on information from 387 ≥40-year-old respondents to the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey who had self-reported chronic bronchitis. Item reduction involved stepwise logistic regression. The accuracy of the final subset of items for identifying individuals with airflow obstruction (forced expiratory volume in one second/forced vital capacity <0.70) versus those without it was assessed with receiver operating characteristic analysis. Content and face validity were assessed using focus groups of primary care physicians (n = 16) and interviews with COPD patients (n = 16).

Results:

The model with all five items (age; smoking history; the presence of wheeze, dyspnea, and phlegm) compared with models with combinations of fewer items had the highest classification accuracy (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.720) with sensitivity and specificity of 73.2% and 58.2%, respectively. The presence of three or more factors yielded the highest AUC, a result suggesting that three or more affirmative answers is the most appropriate criterion indicating presence of airflow obstruction.

Conclusions:

The five-item LFQ retained sufficient accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity in identifying individuals with COPD for further validation testing.

Rationale: Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for diffuse parenchymal lung disease. Risk factors for subclinical parenchymal lung disease have not been described.

Objectives: To determine if cigarette smoking is associated with subclinical parenchymal lung disease, as measured by spirometric restriction and regions of high attenuation on computed tomography (CT) imaging.

Methods: We examined 2,563 adults without airflow obstruction or clinical cardiovascular disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis, a population-based cohort sampled from six communities in the United States. Cumulative and current cigarette smoking were assessed by pack-years and urine cotinine, respectively. Spirometric restriction was defined as a forced vital capacity less than the lower limit of normal. High attenuation areas on the lung fields of cardiac CT scans were defined as regions having an attenuation between −600 and −250 Hounsfield units, reflecting ground-glass and reticular abnormalities. Generalized additive models were used to adjust for age, gender, race/ethnicity, smoking status, anthropometrics, center, and CT scan parameters.

Measurements and Main Results: The prevalence of spirometric restriction was 10.0% (95% confidence interval [CI], 8.9–11.2%) and increased relatively by 8% (95% CI, 3–12%) for each 10 cigarette pack-years in multivariate analysis. The median volume of high attenuation areas was 119 cm3 (interquartile range, 100–143 cm3). The volume of high attenuation areas increased by 1.6 cm3 (95% CI, 0.9–2.4 cm3) for each 10 cigarette pack-years in multivariate analysis.

Conclusions: Smoking may cause subclinical parenchymal lung disease detectable by spirometry and CT imaging, even among a generally healthy cohort.

Owing to the report of an association between rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and obliterative bronchiolitis we have determined the prevalence of airflow obstruction in unselected patients with RA and normal chest radiographs. Spirometry was performed on 100 patients with rheumatoid arthritis and 84 control subjects matched for age, sex, and smoking habits. Patients with rheumatoid arthritis had significantly lower values for FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC, and MMEFR when compared with the controls: 39 patients had abnormal spirometry, and at least 32 showed airways obstruction. The prevalence of airflow obstruction is remarkably high, and we suggest that airway disease may be the commonest form of lung involvement in rheumatoid arthritis.

The response to inhaled methacholine is increased in patients with chronic airflow obstruction, but it is not known whether this is due to true hyperresponsiveness or is a result of the airflow obstruction. In asthmatics the response to methacholine correlates with the bronchoconstriction produced by hyperventilation of cold dry air. We studied 27 patients with a history of smoking and chronic bronchitis with a range of severity of airflow obstruction. Bronchial responses to methacholine (expressed as the provocation concentration causing a fall in FEV1 of 20%-PC20) and isocapnic hyperventilation of cold dry air were measured. In 19 patients the PC20 was less than 8 mg/ml (that is, in the asthmatic range) but only three developed bronchoconstriction in response to hyperventilation. There was a linear correlation between the log PC20 and the FEV1 (r = 0.86, p less than 0.001). The results suggest that in patients with chronic airflow obstruction the response to methacholine is determined by the degree of airflow obstruction, and cannot be used in the diagnosis of asthma in the absence of additional information.

Summary

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by an irreversible chronic airflow obstruction and by an accelerated decline in lung function. Elevated circulating levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), both markers of systemic inflammation, have been found in COPD. Their possible associations with chronic airflow obstruction have mostly been evaluated in highly selected patient samples. Our objective was to evaluate the association between postbronchodilator lung function CRP and IL-6 in a randomly selected sample of the Icelandic population, 40 years and older, while adjusting for gender, age, smoking, and body weight.

Methods

Serum CRP and IL-6 values were measured among participants in the Burden of Obstructive Lung Disease (BOLD) study.

Results

Of the 938 subjects invited a total of 403 men and 355 women participated (response rate 81%) in the study. Their mean age (±SD) was 57.7 (±12.7) years. Both CRP and IL-6 were independently related to lower FEV1 and FVC values. Individuals in the highest quartiles of CRP and IL-6 had a 7.5% and 3.9%, respectively, lower FEV1% than predicted after adjustment for smoking, age, and body weight. High CRP levels were more strongly related to lower FEV1 levels in men (−11.4%) than in women ( −0.4%).

Conclusions

In a random population-based sample both CRP and IL-6 were significantly related to lower spirometric values. The association with CRP was stronger in men than in women. This finding underscores the possible importance of systemic inflammation in irreversible airflow limitation.

There is now conclusive evidence that, as a group, subjects with asthma have lower levels of lung function as compared with their peers and that a significant proportion of subjects with persistent asthma are at risk of developing non–fully reversible airflow limitation, the clinical hallmark of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Although at the population level the most conspicuous form of airflow limitation in asthma seems to be that of subjects who wheeze during the first years of life and whose symptoms persist into adult life, asthma-related lung deficits can be related to both acquired deficits in growth of lung function in childhood and steeper decline of lung function in adult life. These trajectories of lung function are likely to differ across subgroups of individuals with asthma, suggesting that different windows of opportunity may exist to modify the natural course of the disease before irreversible deficits are established. These observations indicate the importance of identifying biomarkers that can be used to target children and adults with asthma at increased risk for airflow limitation and determining whether pharmacological interventions can protect these patients from the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Background

Cigarette smoking is the major cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease but studies on the contribution of other smoking techniques are sparse.

Objective

We hypothesized that pipe and cigar smoking was associated with elevated cotinine levels, decrements in lung function and increased odds of airflow obstruction.

Design

Cross-sectional study.

Setting

Population-based sample from six US communities.

Participants

The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) recruited men and women ages 45-84 years without clinical cardiovascular disease.

Measurements

The MESA Lung Study measured spirometry following American Thoracic Society guidelines and urinary cotinine levels by immunoassay. Pipe-years and cigar-years were calculated as years from self-reported age of starting to quitting (or to current age among current users) × pipefuls or cigars per day.

Results

Of 3,528 participants, 8% reported pipe smoking (median 15 pipe-years), 11% reported cigar smoking (median 6 cigar-years), and 52% reported cigarette smoking (median 18 pack-years). Self-reported current pipe and cigar smokers had elevated urinary cotinine levels compared to never smokers. Pipe-years were associated with decrements in the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and cigar-years were associated with decrements in the FEV1 and the ratio of the FEV1 to the forced vital capacity. Participants who smoked pipes or cigars had an increased odds of airflow obstruction whether they had also smoked cigarettes (Odds ratio 3.43; 95% CI: 1.75, 6.71; P<0.001) or had never smoked cigarettes (Odds ratio 2.31; 95% CI: 1.04, 5.11; P=0.039) compared to participants with no smoking history.

Limitations

Cross-sectional design.

Conclusions

Pipe and cigar smoking increased urinary cotinine levels and was associated with decrements in lung function and increased odds of airflow obstruction, even among participants who never smoked cigarettes.

A recent ATS and ERS joint taskforce report recommends using a lower limit of normal (LLN) of FEV1/FVC as opposed to a fixed ratio of <0.7 to diagnose airflow obstruction, to reduce false positive diagnoses of COPD as defined by the Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). To date there is no reliable spirometry-based prevalence data for COPD in New Zealand and the effect of different definitions of airflow obstruction based on post-bronchodilator spirometry is not known.

Detailed written questionnaires, full pulmonary function tests (including pre- and post-bronchodilator flow volume loops) and atopy testing were completed in 749 people recruited from a random population sample.

The GOLD-defined age-adjusted prevalence for adults ≥ 40 years old was 14.2% (95% CI, 11.0-17.0). This compared to a LLN-defined, age-adjusted, post-bronchodilator prevalence, in the same group of 9.0% (95% CI, 6.7 to 11.3).

The prevalence of COPD varied markedly depending on the definition used. Further research using longitudinal rather than cross-sectional data will help decide the preferred approach in COPD prevalence surveys.

OBJECTIVES--To investigate the prevalence of airways obstruction and bronchial reactivity to inhaled methacholine in rheumatoid arthritis patients and unselected controls. The control population consisted of patients attending the rheumatology department for minor degenerative joint problems. METHODS--One hundred patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) [72 (72%) women, 28 (28%) men; mean (SD) age 58 (10) years] and fifty controls [30 (60%) women, 20 (40%) men; mean (SD) age 56 (9) years] were studied. Detailed medical, smoking and drug histories were taken; skin prick tests were performed to assess atopy and chest and hand radiographs were performed. Spirometry, flow volume loops and gas transfer factor measurement were performed to detect airflow obstruction and methacholine inhalation tests were carried out to assess bronchial reactivity. RESULTS--There was no significant difference between rheumatoid arthritis patients and the controls in age, sex, smoking status and atopy on skin prick testing (p < 0.05). A significantly higher number of patients with RA had a history of wheeze compared with the controls (18% v 4%, p < 0.05). FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC, FEF25-75%, FEF25%, FEF50% and FEF75% were all significantly lower in the rheumatoid arthritis group (p < 0.05). A significantly higher number of patients with RA compared with controls showed bronchial reactivity to inhaled methacholine [55 (55%) v 8 (16%), p < 0.05]. FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC, FEF25-75%, FEF25%, FEF50% and FEF75% were all significantly lower among the patients with RA achieving PD20 FEV1 to inhaled methacholine (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION--In unselected rheumatoid arthritis patients both airflow obstruction and bronchial reactivity are significantly increased compared with controls.

Rationale/Objectives

Smoking has been associated with decreased incidence and prevalence of sarcoidosis, but few studies have evaluated effects of smoking on clinical parameters of the disease. The objectives were to determine the association of smoking with radiographic patterns and to evaluate the associations of these smoking-related radiographic patterns on airflow obstruction in sarcoidosis.

Methods

Clinical data and CT scans of 124 patients with sarcoidosis were reviewed. CT scans were assessed for lymph nodes, nodules, bronchiectasis, bronchovascular bundle thickening, displaced hilum, fibrosis, ground glass, emphysema, pleural changes, and alveolar opacities. CT patterns were compared between patients with and without a history of smoking. The effect of smoking on the associations between radiographic patterns and airflow obstruction was assessed with multivariable analysis.

Results

Smokers had less frequency of bronchovascular bundle thickening than nonsmokers (11/38 subjects(29%) vs. 50/86 subjects(58%),p=0.003) and more emphysema (7/38 subjects(18%) vs. 1/86 subjects(1%),p=0.001). Patients who had bronchovascular bundle thickening were less likely to have ever smoked (11/61 subjects(18%) vs. 27/63 subjects(43%), p=0.003) or be current smokers (4/61 subjects(7%) vs. 15/63 subjects(24%),p=0.008). Age (p=0.003) and bronchovascular bundle thickening (p=0.02) were independent predictors of airflow obstruction. There were no differences in smoking history between patients with airflow obstruction versus those without (10/37 subjects(27)% vs. 28/87 subjects(32%),p=0.63).

Conclusions

In patients with sarcoidosis, smoking is associated with decreased frequency of bronchovascular bundle thickening, a very important clinical manifestation of the lung disease. Further, bronchovascular bundle thickening and age are the only independent predictors of airflow obstruction, and smoking does not confound these associations.

OBJECTIVE--To assess the prevalence of distal airway obstruction and its risk factors in agricultural areas. METHODS--A cross sectional study of respiratory symptoms and lung function was performed among French farmers and their spouses (1122 subjects) who came for preventive medicine examinations. They answered a respiratory questionnaire and performed pulmonary function tests on a portable spirometer. Diagnoses of chronic bronchitis were made on the basis of reported chronic respiratory symptoms. Airway obstruction was determined from predicted values. Odds ratio (OR) and linear regression coefficients were calculated after stratification by smoking and history of cardiac and other respiratory diseases. RESULTS--Of respiratory symptoms prevalence of chronic cough was 8.47%, and chronic bronchitis 7.66%. Prevalence of distal airway obstruction was 11.4%, and overall airflow obstruction 3.2%. Smokers were 20.2% men, and 5.7% women. Linear regressions showed high association between pack-years in smokers or exsmokers and forced expiratory volume in one second/forced vital capacity (FEV1/VC) and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of vital capacity (FEF25-75). In non-smokers without any history of cardiac or respiratory diseases, age and the size of farms had the highest correlations with these variables. OR for distal airway obstruction was 2.1 in subjects > 50 years old v the younger ones and 3.02 in the smaller farms v the larger ones. CONCLUSION--After stratification by smoking and history of cardiac and respiratory diseases, distal airway obstruction is present in agricultural areas. The age, and the size of farm are the highest respiratory risk factors in non-smokers.

Background

The use of spirometry for early detection of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is still an issue of debate, particularly because of a lack of convincing evidence that spirometry has an added positive effect on smoking cessation. We hypothesise that early detection of COPD and confrontation with spirometry for smoking cessation may be effective when applying an approach we have termed "confrontational counselling"; a patient-centred approach which involves specific communication skills and elements of cognitive therapy. An important aspect is to confront the smoker with his/her airflow limitation during the counselling sessions. The primary objective of this study is to test the efficacy of confrontational counselling in comparison to regular health education and promotion for smoking cessation delivered by specialized respiratory nurses in current smokers with previously undiagnosed mild to moderate airflow limitation.

Methods/Design

The study design is a randomized controlled trial comparing confrontational counselling delivered by a respiratory nurse combined with nortriptyline for smoking cessation (experimental group), health education and promotion delivered by a respiratory nurse combined with nortriptyline for smoking cessation (control group 1), and "care as usual" delivered by the GP (control group 2). Early detection of smokers with mild to moderate airflow limitation is achieved by means of a telephone interview in combination with spirometry. Due to a comparable baseline risk of airflow limitation and motivation to quit smoking, and because of the standardization of number, duration, and scheduling of counselling sessions between the experimental group and control group 1, the study enables to assess the "net" effect of confrontational counselling. The study has been ethically approved and registered.

Discussion

Ethical as well as methodological considerations of the study are discussed in this protocol. A significant and relevant effect of confrontational counselling would provide an argument in favour of early detection of current smokers with airflow limitation. Successful treatment of tobacco dependence in respiratory patients requires repeated intensive interventions. The results of this study may also show that respiratory nurses are able to deliver this treatment and that intensive smoking cessation counselling is more feasible.

Trial registration:

Netherlands Trial Register (ISRCTN 64481813).

We evaluated the effects of previous pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) on the risk of obstructive lung disease. We analyzed population-based, the Second Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001. Participants underwent chest X-rays (CXR) and spirometry, and qualified radiologists interpreted the presence of TB lesion independently. A total of 3,687 underwent acceptable spirometry and CXR. Two hundreds and ninty four subjects had evidence of previous TB on CXR with no subjects having evidence of active disease. Evidence of previous TB on CXR were independently associated with airflow obstruction (adjusted odds ratios [OR] = 2.56 [95% CI 1.84-3.56]) after adjustment for sex, age and smoking history. Previous TB was still a risk factor (adjusted OR = 3.13 [95% CI 1.86-5.29]) with exclusion of ever smokers or subjects with advanced lesion on CXR. Among never-smokers, the proportion of subjects with previous TB on CXR increased as obstructive lung disease became more severe. Previous TB is an independent risk factor for obstructive lung disease, even if the lesion is minimal and TB can be an important cause of obstructive lung disease in never-smokers. Effort on prevention and control of TB is crucial in reduction of obstructive lung disease, especially in countries with more than intermediate burden of TB.

BACKGROUND: There are few data on the quantitative effects of cigarette smoking on lung function in young adults. These effects are important in the understanding of the early stages of chronic airflow obstruction. METHODS: A longitudinal study over eight years was carried out to estimate quantitatively the effect of cigarette smoking on ventilatory lung function in young adults and to examine the possibility that the effect is modified by other factors. The study population were 15 to 40 years of age at initial examination, when they underwent spirometry and completed an interviewer administered questionnaire on respiratory health. Eight years later 391 of the subjects were re-examined (38% response rate). The quantitative effect of cigarette smoking during the study period on the average change of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) over time (delta FEV1) was estimated in two linear regression models that included potential confounders and other determinants of outcome. RESULTS: The first model showed a significant dose-response relation between the average rate of smoking during the study period and delta FEV1, giving an estimate of annual change in FEV1 of -0.42 ml for each cigarette smoked per day (-8.4 ml for each pack) (p = 0.04). In the second model, which took smoking before the study period as a potential confounder, the effect of smoking during the study period was slightly smaller (-0.33 ml/year for each cigarette smoked per day). This indicated that smoking before the study period had a marginal latent effect on delta FEV1 during the study. However, neither the effect of smoking before the study nor that of smoking during the study was significant, presumably because of collinearity. Interactions between cigarette smoking and gender, wheezing, atopy, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke during the growth period were not significant with respect to their effect on the relation between cigarette smoking and delta FEV1. CONCLUSION: Cigarette smoking has a dose related adverse effect on the evolution of ventilatory lung function in young adulthood.