AACP should support the development of more extensive research models relating to the examination of the impact of service teaching.
GOAL 3: Improve the Quality of Health Care.
Description of HRSA programs related to this goal
In its 2003 report, the Institute of Medicine drew attention to the role of health professionals to bridge the quality chasm.
8 The IOM report stated that healthcare professionals should be competent to deliver care that is based on the need of the patient and that care should be delivered collaboratively among all the providers caring for the patient. If healthcare professionals were competent in the delivery of patient-centered, team-based care, a higher level of quality would result. Improving the quality of care is important, yet getting healthcare professionals to collaborate effectively to provide the care patients need is difficult. It goes against professional norms that are established early on, all too often during the education of the professional.
HRSA has long supported the development of health professions education programs that are interprofessional in nature. While HRSA programs refer to these as interdisciplinary, this is merely a legislative artifact and has no impact on the agency's interest in creating educational opportunities that allow a variety of health professions students to understand and better appreciate roles and scopes of practice of all the professionals they will work with when caring for patients. To accomplish this, HRSA supports interprofessional education through the Area Health Education Centers (AHEC) and Geriatric Education Centers (GEC) programs. The Public Health Service Act still includes legislative language for the Quentin Burdick Rural Health Education program that focused on interprofessional education in rural settings, but this program has not had federal funding in years.
Description of academic programs supported by HRSA programs related to this goal
Member institutions have a history of participation in HRSA-supported programs relevant to this goal. The University of New Mexico had funding from 1992-1997 to support a Center of Excellence for Native American student pharmacists. In Montana, a pharmacy faculty member currently is involved with a HRSA-supported project with the goal of establishing community health centers that increase patient access to pharmacy services.
Evidence that the Academy is actively engaged in areas relevant to this goal
Within this goal, HRSA's objectives include:
- promote the effectiveness of health care services;
- promote patient safety and improve patient protections;
- promote access to and appropriate use of health care information; and
- promote the implementation of evidence-based methodologies and best practices.
AACP policy statements that provide evidence for Academy-wide engagement include:
- AACP supports the inclusion of the basic principles of clinical and translational research, including how such research is conducted, evaluated, explained to patients, and applied to patient care, in the professional pharmacy curriculum. (Source: Section of Teachers of Pharmacy Practice, 2009)
- The mission of pharmacy education is to prepare graduates who provide patient-centered care that ensures optimal medication therapy outcomes and provides a foundation for specialization in specific areas of pharmacy practice; participation in the education of patients, other health care providers, and future pharmacists; conduct of research and other scholarly activity; and provision of service and leadership to the community. (Source: Academic Affairs Committee, 2007)
- Research that explores the social, economic, organizational and clinical factors that influence the outcomes of drug therapy in prevention or treatment of disease should be central to the mission of all colleges/schools of pharmacy. (Source: Board of Directors based on Educating Clinical Scientists Task Force #2, 2008)
Member institutions are engaged in efforts to improve the quality of healthcare in a variety of contexts. First, the assurance and continuous improvement of quality is an integral part of Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum. In 2004, the Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners (JCPP), of which AACP is a member, committed to a shared vision that “Pharmacists will be the health care professionals responsible for providing patient care that ensures optimal medication therapy outcomes.” To that end, pharmacy schools have committed to research, practice, and teaching in the optimization of patient-centered and population-based improvement of therapeutic outcomes and health promotion, wellness, and disease prevention. Accreditation standards, to which schools and colleges are held accountable by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), require colleges to teach quality assurance and improvement of patient care practice management, medication dispensing and distribution, drug information, and medication safety, and to ensure that students become involved in the quality improvement and assurance programs at their advanced practice rotation sites.
9
Improving patient safety, and in particular medication safety, is a central concern of pharmacy practice including the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP), a nonprofit organization devoted entirely to medication error prevention and safe medication use. At The University of Arizona, an elective course on quality improvement and medication error reduction is offered. At Idaho State University, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, and The University of Utah, students may select APPEs in the area of systems improvement, quality, and safety. Pharmacy faculty are actively engaged in safety improvement research. Auburn University manages a research program in the area of systems engineering to explore how good design can significantly increase work efficiency, and reduce errors. The University of Arizona faculty are engaged in research in the area of medication reconciliation. St. Louis College of Pharmacy hosts an annual conference on medication safety.
A primary role of pharmacy practice faculty is to improve the quality of medication therapy. At St. Louis College of Pharmacy and the University of Missouri-Kansas City, faculty improve anticoagulant therapy outcomes through medication therapy management in partnership with a number of hospital systems. Our data collection revealed pharmacy care outcomes research that results in the improvement of medication therapy occurs at many sites including the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, The University of Utah, Creighton University, University of Florida, and the University of Wyoming.
Interprofessional collaboration to improve the quality of healthcare is a current focus of pharmacy education, practice, and research. At the educational level, member institutions are mandated to emphasize interprofessional teamwork in their curricula by ACPE.
10 In 2009 an entire edition of the
American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education (AJPE) was dedicated to education, designed to help colleges implement interprofessional educational initiatives.
11 Our data collection revealed that pharmacy practice faculty at the University of Illinois at Chicago, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, and University of Nebraska Medical Center are actively engaged in the design, implementation, and continuous improvement of patient-centered medical homes based on the concepts of team-based care.
About $177 billion annually is associated with improper medication use and poor adherence to medications may contribute to more than a quarter million deaths each year.
12, 13 Interventions by pharmacists and pharmacy practice faculty such as health fairs, medication therapy management, immunization, disease prevention screenings, the improvement of health literacy, medication review, counseling, and outcomes evaluation are associated with lower rates of preventable adverse drug events and improved healthcare outcomes.
14, 15 Faculty at St. Louis College of Pharmacy have developed the Asthma-Friendly Pharmacy program, which is being implemented at community practice sites in Missouri. At the University of Washington, students and faculty are engaged in developing culturally appropriate medication use information. At The University of Montana, public health education is a mandatory component of service learning. HIV education is provided through the University of California, San Francisco pharmacy program. Students at University of Missouri-Kansas City have access to a health and wellness Web site designed by the School of Pharmacy. HRSA-supported poison control centers operate through a number of pharmacy schools, including the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and The University of Arizona.
The provision of comprehensive pharmacy services to underserved populations, especially if that care becomes sustainable, is a valuable contribution of pharmacists to improved healthcare quality. Our data collection revealed that an increasing number of faculty and students are engaged with safety-net clinics. Member institutions, including the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Auburn University work with HRSA-supported Area Health Education Centers (AHEC) to provide primary care in underserved settings.
If the Academy is not directly engaged in areas relevant to the goal, should it be?
The Academy is directly and extensively engaged in improving healthcare quality by increasing access to comprehensive pharmacy services.
If the Academy should be engaged in areas relevant to this goal, what should that engagement be or how should it be presented to the Academy to create engagement?
Ultimately, quality improvement should be a conspicuous aspect of every pharmacy practice. The development of quality assurance and improvement systems should be a part of the practice management curriculum. This will require that all practice faculty engage in practice design and outcomes research. A significant barrier to the advancement of practice-based research is the fact that students and many pharmacy practice faculty have little exposure to outcomes research methods. The professional curriculum and faculty development ought to be revised to this end.
Suggestion 1
Colleges and schools of pharmacy should ensure that the professional curriculum includes student exposure to health services and outcomes research.
GOAL 4: Eliminate Health Disparities.
Description of HRSA programs related to this goal
During the first Clinton Administration, HRSA leadership regularly stated the agency's mission was “100% access and 0% disparities.” Since then, the agency has maintained its interest in and concern for improving access for underserved and uninsured patients to a culturally competent health professions workforce that provided high quality care. Several programs associated with health professions education are administered through the HRSA Bureau of Health Professions. Grant funding supports health professions education institutions creation and implementation of programs that improve the educational completion rates of individuals from underserved and disadvantaged backgrounds. These programs put into practice the reality of improved outcomes and adherence to treatment plans when patients are cared for by individuals from their same ethnic or cultural background. The Health Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) and the Diversity Centers of Excellence (COE) program are intended to create a pipeline of diverse individuals interested in pursuing health professions education.
Health disparities are not just the result of ethnic differences between patients and providers. Access and care intensity disparities negatively impact many populations including women and older adults. HRSA programs, such as the geriatric education centers (GEC), support health professions education institutions development and implementation of interprofessional educational programs focused on the care of older adults. Federal agencies, including HRSA, are developing Offices of Women's Health to address disparities experienced by women.
Evidence that the Academy is actively engaged in areas relevant to this goal
Within this goal, HRSA's objectives include:
- focus resources and services on diseases and conditions with the greatest health disparities;
- promote outreach efforts to reach populations most affected by health disparities; and
- promote the integration of cultural competency into HRSA programs, policies and procedures.
AACP policy statements that provide evidence for Academy-wide engagement include:
- Students, faculty and practitioner educators should work to achieve cultural competence and to deliver culturally competent care as part of their efforts to eliminate disparities and inequalities that exist in the health care delivery system. (Source: Argus Commission, 2005)
- AACP endorses the competencies of the Institute of Medicine for health professions education and advocates that all colleges and schools of pharmacy provide faculty and students meaningful opportunities to engage in interprofessional education, practice and research to better meet health needs of society. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 2007)
Types of activities in which schools and colleges of pharmacy are engaged include:
Centers of Excellence- While not all are supported by the HRSA diversity COE program, many of our member institutions are engaged in collaborative partnerships with health systems and other organizations that focus relevant expertise on care improvement that can lead to reducing care disparities.
Howard University School of Pharmacy received a Center of Excellence grant in 2000 to initiate programs for K-12 students, partnerships with community colleges and four year institutions. The School of Pharmacy provides summer enrichment for middle and high school students, Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT) preparation and other remedial programs to assure student success in their academic progression.
The Native American Center of Excellence at The University of Montana provides services and support for faculty, students, staff, and professionals. The University of Montana's Health Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) provides academic and support services for disadvantaged students who want to pursue a career in pharmacy, physical therapy, or other health sciences.
Geriatric Education Centers- Older adult populations present care delivery challenges. These include their ability to access care due to age-related disabilities as well as the amount or type of care to which they have access. These challenges are the focus of HRSA-supported geriatric education centers that establish interprofessional, team-based practice approaches to improving the care of older adults. Our data collection revealed that Geriatric Education Centers, while not all supported by HRSA grants, engage pharmacy faculty, professionals and students at The University of Montana, St. John's University, West Virginia University, Nova Southeastern University, University of Rhode Island, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and The University of New Mexico.
Disparities in care and outcomes can be a direct result of living in a rural or underserved area in which access to necessary care may be limited or non-existent. Rural health professions programs such as those at the University of Illinois at Chicago, The University of Arizona, and University of Nebraska Medical Center provide training for pharmacists and student pharmacists to prepare them for and encourage them to practice in rural and under-resourced areas.
Our data collection reveals that many of our member institutions have clinic programs that provide care to underserved populations (Hispanic, Native American, African American, Asian American) with low or no-cost comprehensive pharmacy services. Services include immunizations, asthma and pulmonary disease management, diabetes management, hypertension clinics, smoking cessation clinics, medication safety training, HIV and hepatitis management, reproductive health, and other student pharmacist or faculty-run outreach programs. The increasing diversity of student pharmacists allows outreach and referral programs to be delivered in multiple languages, addressing the cultural and literacy barriers that exist in both rural and metropolitan areas.
If the Academy is not directly engaged in areas relevant to the goal, should it be?
The Academy is engaged and should be working to increase its engagement. Healthy People 2010 has served as a driving force in preparing pharmacists and student pharmacists for their patient care roles.
16 A central theme of many professional and interprofessional curricula center on the ten leading health indicators and twenty-eight focus areas of this report. Many IPPEs and APPEs, co-curricular, and extracurricular projects of student pharmacists and faculty address Healthy People goals. Outreach efforts to underserved populations offer exceptional learning opportunities for all health professions programs. Cultural competency training and opportunities for pharmacy practice in diverse communities should be enhanced.
If the Academy should be engaged in areas relevant to this goal, what should that engagement be or how should it be presented to the Academy to create engagement?
Interprofessional, team-based education opportunities should be developed and implemented. Member institutions that do not have relationships or affiliations with medical or allied health sciences schools should be encouraged and assisted in creating interprofessional learning experiences. Enhanced cultural competency training for pharmacists and student pharmacists should be encouraged, and models for training should be more broadly disseminated. Efforts to enhance the recruitment and retention of minority populations in pharmacy schools may have the following outcomes:
- Raise the profile of the profession and the institution within underrepresented communities locally and nationally;
- Increase the number of qualified underrepresented student applications;
- Create retention incentives for underrepresented students to accept and commit to our programs earlier in the admissions process;
- Create a comprehensive recruitment and retention package for underrepresented students involving faculty and staff, current students, and alumni from underrepresented groups;
- Outreach to a greater number of secondary schools, junior colleges, churches, and other institutions serving underrepresented groups;
- Develop and utilize a comprehensive marketing package to advertise scholarship and financial aid opportunities that would reduce loan indebtedness;
- Implement programs such as Students Helping Students: professional students conducting programs at elementary and junior high schools to expose prospective students to health sciences education; and
- Create a professional mentoring network of pharmacists from underrepresented groups to advise, counsel and guide students from underrepresented groups.
GOAL 5: Improve the Public Health and Health Care Systems.
Description of HRSA programs related to this goal
Healthcare reform initiatives place a strong dependence on increasing access to clinical and community-based preventive care and wellness services. Public policy recognizes that our current approach of caring for patients after they are sick is an unsustainable approach to healthcare delivery. The public health concepts of health promotion and disease prevention are centuries old, yet overshadowed by the increased dependence on medications, acute care improvements and technologic advancements. Through its stated commitment to communities and special populations, HRSA encourages the integration of prevention and wellness across all its programs including those that support health professions education. While specific programs are aimed at addressing the public health workforce, HRSA supports collaborative efforts between health systems and communities so community-identified needs can be more effectively and efficiently addressed. The development and maintenance of collaborative approaches for improving public health and healthcare systems is dependent on increasing the use of health information technologies such as electronic records for improved patient care, as well as trend analysis useful in population health.
Evidence that the Academy is actively engaged in areas relevant to this goal
Within this goal, HRSA's objectives include:
- utilize trend data to assist in targeting program resources toward goals;
- increase collaborative efforts to improve the capacity and efficiently of the public health and health care systems; and
- accelerate the development and use of an electronic health information infrastructure.
AACP policy statements that provide evidence for Academy-wide engagement include:
- AACP and colleges and schools of pharmacy should assure that students, faculty and alumni have sophisticated and continuous preparation in the design and use of health information technology (HIT) and systems and are prepared to apply HIT in evidence-based decision-making at the point of patient care. (Source: Board of Directors based on Argus Commission, 2008)
- AACP supports the teaching and clinical application of core competencies in primary care health services delivery which are community-based and fully interdisciplinary. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 1994; amended by House of Delegates 2009)
- AACP supports interdisciplinary and interprofessional education for health professions education. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 2002)
- AACP will support member colleges and schools in their efforts to develop pharmacy professionals committed to their communities and all the populations they serve, by facilitating opportunities for the development and maintenance of strong community-campus partnerships. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 2001)
- AACP encourages its member colleges and schools to develop or enhance relationships with other primary care professions and educational institutions in the areas of practice, professional education, research, and information sharing. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 1994)
Member institutions are engaged in efforts to improve public health and healthcare systems at several levels. First, public health is an integral part of the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum, being articulated in the educational outcomes established by the Center for the Advancement of Pharmaceutical Education (CAPE), the accreditation standards of the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), and the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX).
17, 18, 19 To meet these educational, accreditation and licensure expectations, member institutions teach students various elements of public health and healthcare systems in both required and elective classes. For example, Midwestern University Chicago College of Pharmacy requires a course on quality assurance that includes an analysis of infrastructures, pharmacists' functions and drug therapy outcomes. Idaho State University and others have advanced pharmacy practice experiences available in public health and patient safety programs. The University of Montana requires students to perform a service learning project with a community agency where they provide information regarding a public health issue.
Many schools are offering and requiring interprofessional courses with medical students and other health professions. These courses are intended to build bridges and develop teamwork between the various health professionals represented. For example, The University of Arizona requires interprofessional courses on topics such as healthcare collaboration, cultural competency, and communications. These courses provide the opportunity for dialogue between students of the various health professions to solve patient and systems problems.
Not only are faculty engaged in educating students regarding public health, but they are also providing education to Pharm.D. graduates through fellowships and residency programs. For example, the Medical College of Virginia and Virginia Commonwealth University sponsor a Health Policy and Advocacy Fellowship that trains pharmacists for careers in public health or the Academy, and Samford University's PGY1 residency program has a focus on public health.
Faculty are also engaged in improving public health through their clinical, research, and service activities. Clinical pharmacy faculty across the country are collaborating and providing services in free clinics and community clinics such as immunizations, diabetes care, smoking cessation programs, and medication therapy management. For example, the University of Minnesota and University of Southern California collaborate with safety- net organizations to provide primary care. Immunization services are particularly noteworthy. Our data collection revealed all member institutions we contacted were involved with immunization services. Faculty engage students in the provision of these services through IPPEs, APPEs, and extracurricular activities such as health fairs, health screenings, and diabetes education programs. Other faculty are involved in developing technology to improve patient safety. Creighton University recently filed a patent for an electronic health coordination tool. Faculty at the University of Michigan are also working on technology to improve patient safety. Health literacy, an important element in improving patient safety and addressing other public health issues, is a focus of faculty research and service at St. Louis College of Pharmacy and Northeastern University.
Faculty are also involved in non-clinical service activities that support HRSA's public health goals. For example, at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, faculty members work with the state board of pharmacy in analyzing system errors for individual pharmacists and pharmacies and assisting them in establishing procedures to correct these errors. Member institutions are involved in activities such as developing patient safety institutes (University of Illinois at Chicago), providing public health information through a Web site (Butler University) and poison control (University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and The University of Utah).
If the Academy is not directly engaged in areas relevant to the goal, should it be?
Academic pharmacy is directly engaged in this HRSA goal as a result of its curriculum standards. Student pharmacists upon graduation recite the Oath of a Pharmacist. Students pledge to, “Consider the welfare of humanity and relief of suffering my primary concerns.” This pledge reflects a professional commitment to both individual patients and patient populations. The pledge reflects and supports the CAPE education outcomes, the ACPE Doctor of Pharmacy curricular standards, and the NAPLEX blueprint. Students learn about public health and health systems in traditional classroom based learning activities, and are also engaged in experiential courses regarding patient safety and other public health issues.
If the Academy should be engaged in areas relevant to this goal, what should that engagement be or how should it be presented to the Academy to create engagement?
Clearly, the Academy's engagement at the curricular level is defined and well executed. Faculty engagement appears to be largely driven by curricular requirements, individual interest and expertise. Clinical faculty are directly involved in public health initiatives through patient education, clinical services, patient safety initiatives and research. A review of the data collected in this random sample indicates that pharmacy education should be proud of their support of this goal.
Many of the initiatives described are local in nature. AACP may want to consider supporting mechanisms for practice-based research networks to enable faculty to collect and analyze data on a more macro level.
Suggestion 2
AACP should consider supporting mechanisms for practice-based research networks to enable faculty to collect and analyze data on a more macro level.
GOAL 6: Enhance the Ability of the Health Care System to Respond to Public Health Emergencies.
Description of HRSA programs related to this goal
The public policy pendulum continues to swing back and forth on the issue of public health preparedness. Prior to the terrorist attacks in 2001, public health advocates had long sought increased attention and support for programs that would better organize and sustain national, state and local preparedness for both disease and disaster related emergencies. In its March 2001 testimony prepared for the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services and Education, the Coalition for Health Funding stated, “We risk disaster if we do not continue to strengthen our seriously weakened public health infrastructure at the local, state and federal levels to prepare for a bioterrorist attack, a major outbreak of infectious disease such as the world experienced in the 1918 with pandemic flu, and to curb rapidly growing resistance to antibiotics used to treat serious bacterial infections.”
20 After September 2001, the federal government redirected billions of dollars toward strengthening the public health infrastructure and HRSA was a direct recipient of this redirected funding. While the programs developed have provided substantial information and resources aimed at improving the capacity of health systems and healthcare professionals to better prepare for a variety of public health disasters and threats, the pendulum is now swinging back to a level of complacence with HRSA budget justification for the 2011 fiscal year void of any reference to bioterrorism, all-hazards preparedness, or emergency preparedness.
21
Yet, in spite of this reduced interest, academic pharmacy remains committed to improving the capacity of pharmacy graduates to address public health emergencies and to participate as a member of the public health team.
Evidence that the Academy is actively engaged in areas relevant to this goal
Within this goal, HRSA's objectives include:
- enhance the ability of hospitals, health centers, emergency medical systems, poison control centers, and health professionals to respond to bioterrorism and other public health threats in a timely and effective manner; and
- evaluate the capacity of the health care system to plan for and respond to potentially urgent/emergent health care issues.
AACP policy statements that provide evidence for Academy-wide engagement include:
- AACP supports the development and implementation of curricular components and associated instructional strategies that assure a common set of core competencies and knowledge concerning population-based epidemiology, the determinants of health, effective programs in health promotion and disease prevention, and primary health care services delivery for all health professionals. (Source: Professional Affairs Committee, 1994)
The Academy is engaged in this goal, both indirectly by preparing its graduates to contribute in this arena and directly in terms of providing manpower in response to public health emergencies. In preparing graduates to respond to public health emergencies, a large percentage of colleges and schools of pharmacy require immunization training as part of the required curriculum. Additionally, several schools and colleges incorporate emergency preparedness, and bioterrorism training and education into required and/or elective curricula. Student engagement in public health and public health emergency response also extends to the experiential curriculum with many schools offering rotations with public health districts and emphasizing immunization promotion and emergency preparedness in community pharmacy rotations. Moreover, as noted in a recent study by Westrick, et al., pharmacy college/school affiliations with community pharmacies increase the likelihood that the community pharmacy is engaged in immunization and emergency preparedness as compared to community pharmacies that are not affiliated with a pharmacy college/school.
22
The Academy is also actively engaged in assisting their local health districts and communities prepare for and response to public health emergencies. Notable examples in this arena include Southern Illinois University Edwardsville faculty members who participate in mock emergency drills and assist with National Strategic Stockpiling efforts. The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, which has contracts with the state to provide a call center for emergency readiness volunteers, trains students for emergency readiness and maintains a database in this regard. The University of Missouri-Kansas City has a cooperative agreement with the Kansas City Health Department to assist with the health department's mass prophylaxis dispensing efforts as a response to public health emergency within the city limits of Kansas City. Likewise, Washington State University has an agreement with the Spokane Regional Health District that commits a response team of faculty and students to public health emergencies in any of the seven counties in eastern Washington.
If the Academy is not directly engaged in areas relevant to this goal, should it be?
Although there are pockets of involvement across the Academy, it is important that colleges and schools of pharmacy become even more engaged and committed to training its students and providing support to public health emergency response systems. As recently noted by Washington State University faculty member Dr. Brenda S. Bray, “Pharmacists can be really instrumental in setting up a medication dispensing system and they have knowledge of the legal and regulatory aspects of such a system, as well as the therapeutic value of the medications.”
23 Acknowledgement of the importance of the pharmacist's role and the pharmacist's unique and comprehensive knowledge of medications and medication dispensing systems amounts to a clarion call to the Academy to ensure that graduates of colleges and schools of pharmacy are prepared to contribute to public health emergency response systems. Moreover, in line with the conclusions of Westrick, et al., it is the Academy that will push the profession forward into a more active role in this regard.
If the Academy should be engaged in areas relevant to this goal, what should that engagement be or how should it be presented to the Academy to create engagement?
It is important that colleges and schools of pharmacy look to enhancing public health emergency content in their didactic curricula and become more involved in seeking out opportunities for students to participate in these activities in the experiential curricula as well as identifying public health system partners to more fully engage faculty members and students as participants of emergency response teams. Moreover, members of the Academy that are currently engaged in public health emergency response systems should serve as models that could be replicated in colleges and schools across the country. Faculty and students from these colleges/schools, along with their collaborators at the public health districts, should be encouraged to promote their activities highlighting the role that pharmacists can play. Finally, where members of the Academy are engaged in this goal, attention should be given to demonstrating the impact of pharmacy school faculty, students, and pharmacists on public health emergency response systems through scholarly research and publication.
Recommendation 8
AACP should support the development of a curriculum resource/curriculum guide for bioterrorism/emergency preparedness.
